■i  WmSlS  AND  CLASSIFfCATlON 
OF  PERFORMANCE  IN 
CAIIONAL  RELATIONS 


J.OSBORNE  HOPWOOD 


V   > 


Analysis  and  Classification 

of    Performance   in 

Vocational  Relations 


BY 


J.  OSBORNE  HOPWOOD,  M.  S.  (Yale) 

Of  the  Personnel  Department  of  The  Philadelphia  Electric 

Company.       Form,erly  of   the  Em,ergency  Fleet 

Corporation,  Instructor,  Operative,  etc. 


BOSTON 

RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE  GORHAM  PRESS 


Copyright  1&22,  by  Richard  G.  Badger 


All  Rights  Reserved 


AGRIO,  OEPT.    ^^-^ducd-^'^o 


MADE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


The  Gorhjvm  Press,  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


HF 

H77^ 


PREFACE 

In  considering  occupations  and  the  adaptations 
of  persons  to  them,  adherence  to  the  idea  that 
it  is  necessary  to  discover  specific  traits  of  charac- 
ter essential  to  each  situation  has  not  given  satis- 
factory results  because  there  is  no  real  basis  for 
analyzing  character  into  traits  and  therefore  no 
real  basis  for  its  classification.  A  particular  kind 
of  expression  which  may  be  called  for  in  an  occu- 
pation may  be  due  to  different  character  traits  or 
combinations  of  traits,  also,  the  same  trait  may 
give  rise  to  different  kinds  of  expression  and  there- 
fore may  apply  to  a  number  of  situations.  If  we 
could  identify  character  traits  and  attribute  to 
them  all  of  their  different  kinds  of  expression  and 
formulate  the  kinds  of  expression  due  to  particu- 
lar combinations  of  traits,  we  would  have  a  sci- 
ence of  character  analysis  but  no  such  science  ex- 
ists and  attempts  to  apply  knowledge  of  this  kind 
have  therefore  been  misleading. 

In  this  prospectus  I  have  taken  the  view  that 
performance,  and  not  the  character  traits  of  per- 
sons which  may  prompt  it,  is  the  subject  of  direct 

5 


31)4877 


6  Preface 

concern  in  analyses  of  occupations  and  that  discov- 
ery and  conscious  direction  of  the  development 
of  adaptations  of  persons  for  specific  occupation- 
al performance  involves  consideration  of  expres- 
sion with  regard  to  the  specific  performance  but 
does  not  necessarily  require  the  identification  of 
character  traits  concerned,  performance  being 
capable  of  analysis  into  its  essential  component 
acts  and  therefore  capable  of  classification  ac- 
cording to  the  kinds  of  acts  which  compose  it. 

This  principle  has  many  important  extensions 
and  applications  and  is  verified  by  inspection  of 
the  true  state  of  affairs  in  industrial  life.  In  the 
Introduction  and  sections  which  follow,  I  have 
tried  to  set  forth  definite  applications  with  essen- 
tial procedure  and  supporting  theory  in  order  to 
make  a  guide  book  which  may  be  of  practical 
value.  In  addition  to  my  own  study  and  industrial 
experience,  I  have  made  use  of  various  works  to 
which  I  have  referred  In  the  text. 

J.  Osborne  Hopwood. 
Prlmos,  Pa., 

February,  1922. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     Introduction    1 1 

II     The  Nature  of  Performance 25 

III  Organization  in  Performance   34 

IV  Key  to  Analysis  and  Classification  of 

Performance    in    Vocational    Rela- 
tions          45 

V     Standard    Specifications    and    Graded 

Classification  for  Positions 55 

VI     Individual  Placement,  Follow-up,  and 

Training    84 


ANALYSIS  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF 

PERFORMANCE  IN  VOCATIONAL 

RELATIONS 


Analysis  and  Classification  of 

Performance  in  Vocational 

Relations 

I 

INTRODUCTION 

Subject  and  Object 

This  prospectus  deals  with  performance  in  oc- 
cupations, its  analysis,  characterization,  graded 
classification,  and  the  diagnosis  of  individual 
adaptation  for  it  with  respect  to  placement  of 
workers  or  vocational  guidance.  Its  object  is  to 
set  forth  systematically,  essential  principles  and 
procedure  which,  heretofore,  have  not  been  corre- 
lated in  concrete  form. 

Phases  of  Application 

There  are  two  phases  of  application  of  analysis 
and  classification  of  performance  in  vocational  re- 
lations. One  is  to  the  performance  pertaining  to 
occupations  or  positions  without  regard  to  the 

II 


'\i  '  '  Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

persons  in  them,  and  the  other  is  to  the  perform- 
ance of  persons  with  respect  to  the  requirements 
of  their  positions  or  occupations.  The  former  ap- 
plies in  connection  with  defining  and  grading  ser- 
vice and  establishing  a  basis  for  equitable  salary 
and  wage  rates  and  the  latter,  in  connection  with 
placement,  follow-up,  and  training,  including 
judgment  and  direction  of  the  self  and  others  in 
vocational  relations  broadly. 

In  corporate  work  we  are  studying  and  devel- 
oping organized  effort  for  production  and,  as  in- 
dividuals, we  are  studying  and  developing  our- 
selves for  application  in  organized  effort,  so  that, 
collectively  and  individually,  we  need  to  appreci- 
ate the  real  nature  of  performance  and  to  charac- 
terize it  and  classify  it  upon  a  scientific  basis. 

To  Performance  of  Occupations  or  Positions 

Systematic  employment  methods  have  been 
specifically  called  for  in  the  awakening  of  indus- 
trial management  to  the  realization  that  organi- 
zation for  rational  administration  in  employment 
matters  has  a  vital  bearing  upon  efliciency  in  pro- 
duction. In  these  administrative  functions  Analy- 
sis and  Classification  of  Performance  has  a  rank- 
ing importance  comparable  to  that  of  Analysis  and 


Introduction 


13 


Classification  of  Accounts  in  the  field  of  Account- 
ing. 

Development  of  intensive  industry  entails  the 
growth  of  corporations  and  the  application  of  sci- 
ence, or  engineering,  and  this  work  is  a  phase  of 
Industrial  Engineering  which  has  come  into  recog- 
nition in  its  turn  as  a  field  of  applied  science  like 
other  kinds  of  engineering  work  have  done  in  the 
past. 

The  application  of  this  prospectus  to  develop- 
ment of  standard  practice  may  be  easily  seen  by 
reference  to  the  following  synopsis  of  essential 
functions  in  employment  administration. 


X   ±   J^   ±  J,      ± 


h 


a 


X 


jT^i,      j^  Ixi 


1 


x^ 


?? 


14        Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

These  functions  are  of  primary  importance  in 
industrial  relations  because  they  are  the  elements 
for  organized  fair  dealing  and  constitute  means 
for  methodical  adjustment  for  stability  and  effici- 
ency in  operations.  Fair  dealing  is  a  condition  of 
environment  which  any  person  must  have  for  effi- 
cient performance  and  it  must  be  provided  for  like 
any  other  function  in  an  organization,  if  it  is  to 
be  performed  proficiently.  If,  in  his  industrial 
relations,  a  man  gets  a  fair  and  square  deal  all  the 
way  around,  with  all  but  not  more  than  he  earns, 
and  realizes  it  through  conferential  relations  with 
the  management,  his  progress  is  then  entirely  a 
matter  of  his  own  productive  efficiency  in  the  op- 
portunities which  develop  and  he  cannot  help  but 
know  it  and  direct  his  creative  effort  accordingly 
for  production. 

The  procedure  suggested  in  this  prospectus 
with  regard  to  positions,  establishes  definition 
as  to  performance,  classification  as  to  produc- 
tion status,  and  uniformity  and  limitations  as  to 
nomenclature  and  titles  throughout  the  depart- 
ments of  their  organization.  With  specifications 
thus  established,  irregularities  may  be  clarified, 
duplication  of  effort  eliminated,  and  administra- 
tion conducted  to  better  advantage  than  without 
system  of  this  kind. 


Introduction  15 

Classification  according  to  the  Production  Stat- 
us of  Performance  is  grading  upon  an  equitable 
and  logical  basis  and  is  an  incentive  to  the  realiza- 
tion by  all  of  "fair  dealing,"  when  it  is  made 
known. 

To  Performance  of  Persons — For  Placement, 
Follow-Up  and  Training 

These  specifications  provide  a  definite  basis  up- 
on which  to  judge  persons  in  hiring  and  placement 
by  setting  forth  the  specific  performance  of  posi- 
tions to  which  the  incumbents  must  measure  up, 
and  the  examiners  can  then  follow  a  standard  pro- 
cedure. Principles  and  steps  for  this  also  arc 
stated  subsequently. 

The  points  set  forth  as  performance  require- 
ments in  positions  also  serve  as  a  basis  in  rat- 
ing the  efliciency  and  progress  of  the  persons 
in  the  positions  in  keeping  a  periodic  record  for 
"follow-up"  for  adjustment,  advancement,  etc. 
Points  in  which  persons  are  weak  or  deficient  con- 
stitute subjects  for  training. 

In  diagnosis  for  placement,  the  only  scientific 
basis  is  analysis  of  the  performance  required  and 
the  discovery  in  persons  of  the  necessary  adapta- 
tion for  it,  as  this  may  be  revealed  by  observable 


1 6         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

physical  structure  and  general  performance.  This 
cannot  be  correctly  called  character  analysis. 
Character  analysis  requires  discovery  in  individ- 
uals of  specific  traits*  of  all  kinds  and  their  hered- 
itary and  environmental  detierminers  which,  if 
they  are  capable  of  structural  determination,  are 
for  the  most  part  unknown.  We  can,  however, 
analyse  the  performance  which  persons  show  to  us 
or  give  evidence  of  having  executed. 

We  can  describe  character  as  far  as  we  are  able 
to  observe  it,  but  there  is  no  basis  for  its  real  or 
complete  analysis  and  classification.  It  is  true 
that  mental  processes  and  physical  performance 
are  inseparably  integrated  in  an  organism  and 
every  animal  can  recognize  attitudes  and  states  of 
mind  in  others  through  physical  expressions  which 
reflect  them,  and  experience  in  recognition  of  these 
helps  us  to  judge  others.  Experience  of  this  kind 
has  been  universal  for  so  long  that  it  is  intuitive 
with  animals  and  men  to  feign  and  pose  in  action, 
and  to  lead  and  follow  leadership.  But  the  mys- 
tery of  character  has  led  to  speculation  for  ages 
and  to  many  false  claims  as  to  Its  revelations,  for 
example,  in  widely  advertised  employment  liter- 


*A  trait  is  a  peculiarity  of  organization  with  both  structural 
and  functional  aspects. 


Introduction  17 

ature  which  is  sold  to  industrial  managers,  there 
are  such  "quack"  statements  as  the  following: 
"We  see  that  for  every  physical  difference  be- 
tween men  there  is  a  corresponding  mental  differ- 
ence, because  both  the  physical  differences  and  the 
mental  differences  are  results  of  the  same  heredity 
and  environment." 

Science  has  not  shown  that  there  is  generally  a 
causal  connection  between  the  individual  observ- 
able physical  differences  and  the  mental  differ- 
ences in  men,  and  inclines  to  deny  its  existence  as 
a  general  principle,  because  these  differences  are 
not  usually  the  results  of  the  same  hereditary  or 
environmental  determiners.  In  any  ultimate  an- 
alysis, mental  differences  are  due  to  minute  organic 
physical  differences  involving  the  nerve  tissue  as 
well  as  other  tissues,  their  health  and  disease, 
balance  of  building  up  and  breaking  down,  and 
their  environmental  stimuli  (physical  surround- 
ings; blood  supply,  content,  etc.),  which  are  sub- 
ject to  very  limited  observation  only,  and  subject 
to  change.  Some  of  these  characters  are  heredi- 
tary and  some  are  of  environmental  origin,  and 
their  nature  is  such  as  to  make  their  individual 
determination,  at  least,  exceedingly  difficult.  All 
that  we  can  observe  ordinarily  are  some  of  the 


i8         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

gross  physical  differences  among  individuals, 
which  usually  have  nothing  to  do  with  mental  dif- 
ferences and  differences  in  performance. 

The  above  quotation  states  the  assumption  up- 
on which  the  false  systems  of  Phrenology  and 
Physiognomy  were  founded,  which  have  misled 
men  for  centuries.  Fortunately,  to-day,  we  can 
be  disillusioned  by  the  revelations  of  modern  sci- 
ence and  ought  not  to  be  misled  by  "quackery"  to 
subject  either  persons  or  production  to  failures  on 
account  of  judgments  based  upon  such  superficial 
characters  as  skin  texture  and  mere  form  of  hands 
or  other  physical  features;  'which  would  fail  to 
discover  an  Abraham  Lincoln.' 

(Refer  to  "Heredity  and  Environment,"  E. 
G.  Conklin,  Princeton  University  Press,  and  "Vo- 
cational Psychology,"  Hollingworth,  Appletons). 

Judgment  and  direction  of  the  self  and 
OTHERS  in  vocational  relations  broadly,  calls  for 
examination  of  the  individual's  self  with  regard  to 
the  items  in  a  comprehensive  list,  such  as  the 
"Check  List,"  following,  as  is  necessary  in  exam- 
ing  the  performance  of  a  position  to  make  up 
specifications,  in  order  to  appraise  adaptions  for 
performance  singly  and  establish  specific  features 
for  a  general  characterization.     With  this  appre- 


Introduction  19 

elation  of  how  one  is  endowed  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  environment  by  the  faculties  which  he 
has  inherited  or  acquired,  he  can  be  directed  intel- 
ligently to  appropriate  kinds  of  work,  if  the  work 
available  for  selection  is  also  examined  with  re- 
gard to  the  same  items  which  were  taken  in  the 
personal  examination,  and  comparisons  are  made. 
Moreover,  development  may  be  intelligently  di- 
rected by  giving  attention  to  training  relevant  to 
adaptations  and  requirements. 

We  profit  as  long  as  we  practice  the  activities 
which  intelligent  realization  of  the  relation  be- 
tween our  faculties  and  our  environment  reveals 
to  us  as  essential  to  progress.  In  this,  rational 
direction  necessitates  a  plan  for  co-ordination  of 
effort  towards  definite  aims  and  such  a  plan  for 
individual  guidance  may  be  formulated  with  the 
aid  of  this  prospectus. 

In  general  criticism  of  persons  in  their  occupa- 
tions it  is  common  to  discuss  such  general  qualities 
as  Executive  Ability,  Leadership,  Personality,  In- 
telligence, etc.,  without  looking  into  the  specific 
points  in  performance  called  for  in  connection 
with  each  of  them  and  judgments  are  often  vague 
and  poor  on  that  account.  They  are  usually  re- 
garded as  more  or  less  indefinable  requisites  to 


20        Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

be  estimated  in  the  lump  sum  without  thought  of 
analysis.  If,  however,  we  consider  each  quality 
from  the  standpoint  of  its  required  performance, 
we  can  determine  with  considerable  clearness,  the 
items  which  are  essential,   as  follows : — 

Executive  Ability  is  ability  to  perform  executive 
service  which  consists  of: 

1.  Organization — analyzing  and  classifying 
the  functions  in  a  division  of  labor  and  construct- 
ing and  integrating  the  essential  positions  for  the 
performance  of  the  functions. 

2.  Judgment  of  Others — guaging  correctly  the 
ability  of  others  for  placement  in  the  scheme  of 
organization. 

3.  Decisions — fair,  definite,  prompt  and  logi- 
cal, taking  fair  chances  and  holding  with  moral 
courage  of  convictions  and  self-reliance,  regard- 
less of  criticism. 

4.  Association — with  tact,  poise,  and  spontan- 
eous expression  of  sincerity,  confidence,  and  abili- 
ty to  carry  out  a  project  sufficient  to  Inspire  the 
respect,  trust,  and  confidence  of  others  and  their 
subordination  to  leadership. 

5.  Instruction — guaging  correctly  Its  effect  and 
adapting  it  accordingly. 

6.  General  Functions  of  Management,  viz. — 


Introduction  21 

Constructive  imagination  with  formulation  and 
development  of  consequent  courses  of  action,  even 
against  environmental  and  instinctive  dictates ; 

Accurate  observation,  including  original  an- 
alyses and  syntheses  on  the  basis  of  fundamental 
likenesses  and  differences; 

Establishing  standards ; 

Resourceful  application  of  course  of  action. 

Analysis  of  executive  service  in  this  manner  will 
reveal  essentials  for  consideration  which  would 
otherwise  be  lost  sight  of  and  probably  cause  ser- 
ious mistakes  in  judgment.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  persons  in  executive  positions  who  are  true 
bosses  and  little  else,  and  others  who  attend  to  de- 
tailed routine  procedure  to  the  exclusion  of  larger 
problems  because  they  cannot  organize,  and  still 
others  who  are  strikingly  deficient  in  other  fea- 
tures of  the  requirements. 

Leadership  essentially  involves  association  with 
poise  and  the  physical  expression  of  self  reliance 
and  sincerity  to  command  the  respect,  confidence 
and  co-operation  of  others,  in  addition  to — 

Decisions,  fair,  definite,  prompt  and  logical, 
taking  fair  chances  and  holding  with  moral  cour- 
age and  self  reliance ; 

Accurate  observation  including  — 


22         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Judgment  of  qualities  by  comparison  with  es- 
tablished standards  and 

Analyses  and  classifications  by  established  pro- 
cedure ; 

Resourceful  application  of  courses  of  action. 

This  performance  may  not  include  more  than 
supervision  of  routine  standard  practice,  that  is, 
leadership  does  not  essentially  involve  a  high 
order  of  constructive  imagination  or  other  func- 
tions of  management  which  are  essential  in  execu- 
tive service ;  it  may  be  concerned  only  with  estab- 
lished procedure.  Its  most  essential  features  are 
in  expression  for  effect  upon  others. 

Because  of  lack  of  definition  and  due  consider- 
ation to  analysis,  leadership  is  often  mistaken  for 
executive  ability  and  inefficiency  is  the  result.  An 
executive  is  a  leader  but  a  leader  is  not  necessarily 
an  executive.  Leadership  is  essentially  a  spectac- 
ular kind  of  performance  and  therefore  frequently 
suggestive  of  more  than  it  really  is,  so  that,  with- 
out means  for  analysis  and  examination  for  essen- 
tials, it  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  executive  abil- 
ity. 

Personality  is  the  combination  of  qualities 
peculiar  to  a  person.  We  judge  its  character  by 
its  expression.     But  when  asked  to  judge  it,  what 


Introduction  23 

are  we  to  judge?  No  two  persons  would  have 
very  similar  ideas  of  how  to  appraise  it  without 
specifications  for  analysis  of  its  performance.  If 
a  situation  requires  a  certain  type  of  personality 
there  must  be  certain  features  of  performance  in 
the  requirements  which  can  be  specified,  and,  in 
order  to  judge  intelligently  as  to  the  fitness  of  a 
person  for  the  situation,  we  must  determine  the 
nature  of  these  features  or  items  and  consider 
them  separately.  For  example,  in  salesmanship 
certain  items  stand  out  more  prominently  than 
others,  namely — 

Judging  human  temperament, 

Intuitive  action  to  command  and  sustain  favor- 
able attention, 

Resourceful  treatment  to  sustain  interest. 

These  things,  of  course,  involve  spontaneous 
expressions  of  confidence  and  sincerity  of  a  kind 
appropriate  to  circumstances,  and  other  items  es- 
sential in  a  situation  should  be  considered. 

Intelligence  is  capacity  for  accomplishment 
through  powers  of  observation,  memory,  decision, 
skill,  reasoning,  and  constructive  imagination.  It 
is  manifest  in  different  degrees  among  individuals 
by  the  grades  of  work  in  which  they  are  able  to 
perform.     Many  individuals  can  acquire  a  high 


24        Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

degree  of  skill  and  apply  themselves  efficiently 
when  their  performance  is  determined  by  dir/sc- 
tion  and  long  experience  but  cannot  step  up  any 
higher  into  original  analysis  and  the  establishment 
of  new  standards  and  courses  of  action  because 
they  lack  vision  or  constructive  imagination.  Oth- 
ers are  capable  only  of  acquiring  a  low  degree  of 
skill  in  established  standard  practice. 

In  judging  intelligence,  therefore,  we  must  con- 
sider the  nature  of  the  performance  expected  by 
careful  analysis  and  weigh  a  person's  capabilities 
according  to  evidence  given  of  performance  of  the 
same  grade,  though  not  necessarily  consisting  of 
the  same  acts. 

With  due  consideration  of  these  points  it  will 
be  obvious  that  "Analysis  and  Classification  of 
Performance  in  Vocational  Relations"  is  a  subject 
of  vital  importance  in  industrial  life. 


II 
THE  NATURE  OF  PERFORMANCE 

Occupational  performance  may  be  analyzed, 
defined,  and  graded,  if  we  will  recognize  funda- 
mental scientific  principles,  and  the  procedure  may 
at  the  same  time  be  simple  and  practical.  In  this 
it  is  of  first  importance  to  appreciate  the  nature 
of  performance  in  general  and  its  relation  to 
thought.  The  two  are  integrated  and  the  grade 
attained  in  performance  is  determined  by  the 
grade  of  thought  which  is  integrated  with  it. 
Therefore,  in  tracing  the  progressive  stages  of 
thought  we  can  recognize  corresponding  degrees 
of  simplicity  or  complexity  in  performance  and  es- 
tablish a  basis  for  its  analysis  and  classification. 
Progressive  Stages  of  Thought 

Thought,  like  all  other  processes  in  nature,  Is 
progressive  from  early  stages,  in  which  it  has 
simple  characteristics,  to  more  advanced  stages  in 
which  it  is  more  complex,  involving  organization 
(differentiation  of  the  whole  into  integrated  divis- 
ions and  sub-divisions).     Its  stages  require  corre- 

25 


26         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

spending  degrees  of  attention  to  the  objects  of 
impression.  Impressions  are  accordingly,  at  first, 
vague  and  general  with  regard  to  their  objects  as 
a  whole  in  associated  relations.  With  more  at- 
tention, the  impressions  become  more  exact  and 
include  perception  of  numbers,  likeness  and  differ- 
entiation of  parts,  and  their  integration,  compris- 
ing analyses,  syntheses,  and  organization  of  ideas. 
These  ideas,  or  mental  pictures,  are  then  avail- 
able for  recall  by  suggestion  in  recurring  experi- 
ences and  enable  comparisons  and  judgments  of 
likenesses  and  differences  between  new  and  former 
observations.  Thinking  may  then  advance  into 
reasoning  by  the  derivation  of  conceptions  from 
combinations  of  premises. 

Attention  is  application  of  the  consciousness  to 
objects  of  impression  directly  or  by  the  recall  of 
their  impressions,  and  the  extension  of  these  im- 
pressions into  mental  pictures  or  ideas  of  other 
proportions  than  real  experiences  portray,  con- 
stitutes imagination,  which  is  constructive  when  it 
is  rational. 

While  the  processes  which  constitute  thought 
are  at  any  moment  numerous,  complex,  and  in- 
separable, we  can  summarize  its  progressive 
stages  to  be  about  as  follows,  although  there  are 


The  Nature  of  Performance  27 

no  sharp  lines  of  demarkation  between  them  be- 
cause they  grade  into  each  other : — 

I.  Observation — 

Perception  of  objects  of  impression — 

( 1 )  as  a  whole  in  associated  relations 
and 

(2)  as  to  parts,  their  number,  likeness, 
differentiation,  and  integration — 
comprising  analyses,  syntheses,  and 
organization  of  ideas. 

II.   Reasoning — 

Conception  of  facts  by  conclusion  from 
established  premises — 

( 1 )  Inductive — conception  of  general 
principles  from  observed  specific 
relations. 

(2)  Deductive — conception  of  specific 
relations  from  previously  conceiv- 
ed general  principles. 

III.  Constructive  Imagination — 

Extension  of  past  experiences  into  con- 
ceptions of  new  combinations  or  situations 
of  feasible  existence. 


28         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Capacity  for  the  progress  of  thought  through 
these  stages  of  development  and  for  perform- 
ance to  which  it  is  essential,  which  is  capacity  for 
volitional  accomplishment,  is  intelligence  and  this 
accords  with  the  complexity  of  an  animal's  gen- 
eral organization. 

Performance 

Performance  consists  of  correlated  acts  rang- 
ing from  the  simplest  "Reflexes"  to  "Rational 
Acts."  Reflexes  are  automatic  or  subconscious 
responses  to  stimuli,  such  as  blinking,  breath- 
ing, walking,  feeding,  talking,  etc.  These  acts 
are  instinctive  when  they  are  induced  by  in- 
herited traits  instead  of  by  traits  acquired  through 
learning  by  experiences.  They  are  subconscious 
responses  to  feelings  or  impulses  and  include 
such  acts  as  the  familiar  breeding  habits  of 
birds  and  other  animals,  struggles  for  self  pres- 
ervation, etc.  Then  there  are  "Intelligent" 
acts,  their  performance  consisting  in  the  conscious 
recognition  of  recurring  experiences  and  the  selec- 
tion and  repetition  of  relevant  acts  which  were 
previously  dictated  by  contact  with  environment, 
such  as  the  behavior  of  a  dog  as  he  learns  to  open 
a  gate.     He  knows  that  it  opens  because  he  has 


The  Nature  of  Performance  29 

seen  it  open.  Otherwise  he  would  not  know  its 
difference  from  the  other  parts  of  the  fence.  He 
paws  until  he  strikes  the  latch  in  the  right  way  to 
open  the  gate,  and  afterwards  he  repeats  the  act 
from  memory  of  past  experiences.  This  is  learn- 
ing by  experience  and  many  of  our  own  acts  are 
of  like  character  to  such  acts  of  lower  animals. 
At  the  upper  end  of  the  scale  there  arc  "Rational" 
acts.  These  acts  include  definite  reasoning  from 
premises  and  comprise  the  most  complex  kinds  of 
performance,  such  as  constructive  planning  and 
execution  of  new  courses  of  action  involving  the 
imagination  and  are  peculiar  to  man.  They  are 
Intelligent  acts  developed  to  greater  complexity, 
and  performance  on  the  whole  is  more  or  less  in- 
telligent according  to  the  complexity  or  simplicity 
of  the  acts  involved. 

Among  the  lower  animals  it  is  doubtful  if  Ra- 
tional performance  reaches  any  degree  of  devel- 
opment but  Intelligent  performance  and  Reflexive 
performance  are  intermingled,  the  latter  becom- 
ing more  and  more  pronounced  as  we  descend  the 
scale  of  animal  forms  from  the  mammals  to  the 
lower  types  like  fishes  and  invertebrates. 

The  mammals  include  man  and  the  highest 
types  of  lower  animals  such  as  the  monkey,  cat, 


30         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

dog,  seal,  horse,  etc.  They  exhibit  the  highest 
faculties  for  learning  of  all  animals,  and,  of 
course,  man  supercedes  the  other  mammals  by  vir- 
tue of  his  reasoning  power  and  constructive  Imag- 
ination. 

The  birds  exhibit  interesting  instinctive  habits 
of  nest  building,  migration,  etc.  and  much  less 
ability  to  learn  than  the  mammals. 

The  reptiles  are  more  stupid  than  the  birds,  the 
frogs  and  toads  more  so  than  the  reptiles,  and  the 
fishes  show  the  lowest  degree  of  ability  to  acquire 
new  habits  by  learning  of  all  vertebrate  animals. 

The  invertebrates  Include  the  insects,  crabs, 
moUusks,  worms,  and  the  simplest  animals  whose 
acts  are  all  principally  of  the  character  of  reflexes. 
They  smell  their  food  and  move  toward  it,  see 
lights  and  dash  toward  them,  and  perform  many 
other  acts  of  a  simple  Impulsive  nature. 

In  the  training  of  animals,  the  mammals,  there- 
fore, show  the  highest  capabilities  for  skillful 
feats. 

In  the  DEVELOPMENT  of  an  animal,  its  thought 
and  performance  progress  from  stages  with 
simple  characteristics  In  the  Infant  to  stages  with 
more  complex  characteristics  in  the  adult  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  development  reached  by  the 


J 


The  Nature  of  Performance  31 

adult,  man  showing  the  greatest  amount  of  devel- 
opment and  the  simplest  animals,  the  least. 

Thus,  in  either  way  that  we  consider  it,  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  comparison  of  animal  forms, 
or  from  the  standpoint  of  the  development  of 
the  single  animal,  intelligence  accords  with  degree 
of  organization,  as  is  true  of  capacity  for  accom- 
plishment generally. 

The  Degree  or  Status  of  Intelligence  of 
a  living  being  is  therefore  shown  by  the  position 
on  the  scale  of  acts  (ranging  from  simple  reflexes 
to  rational  acts)  at  which  we  can  place  the  acts 
which  he  is  capable  of  performing  and  this  prin- 
ciple applies  if  we  take  the  human  race  alone  and 
consider  the  types  of  intelligence  observed.  Some 
minds  are  not  able  to  think  and  reason  to  a  high 
degree  but  act  much  the  same  as  lower  animals  do, 
obeying  their  instinctive  impulses  and  acting  as 
their  environment  has  required  them  to  act,  that 
is,  their  performance  is  the  result  of  their  instinc- 
tive impulses  plus  the  experiences  gained  by 
knocking  about  in  their  environment.  Others  can 
imagine  new  situations  and  plan  new  courses  of 
action  which  they  have  never  performed  before. 
In  all  normal  persons  however,  we  find  reflexive, 
intelligent,  and  rational  acts  intermingled  in  their 


32         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

behavior  and  the  rating  of  one's  intelligence  is 
therefore  a  question  of  relative  values  entirely. 

New  acts  require  close  attention  but  repetition 
tends  to  make  their  performance  standard  and 
more  and  more  mechanical  and  spontaneous  until 
they  may  be  performed  with  little  or  no  conscious 
effort  more  perfectly  than  by  the  application  of 
conscious  effort.  For  example,  'we  cannot  walk 
as  well,  or  talk  as  well,  or  drive  a  car  as  well  when 
we  apply  conscious  effort  to  every  move  as  when 
we  allow  our  movements  to  flow  freely  and  uncon- 
sciously.' In  this  manner,  higher  acts  become  re- 
flexive and  we  become  expert  by  experience  be- 
cause the  physical  organization  has  become  ex- 
tended or  specialized  for  this  eflSlciency.  We  are 
adaptable  through  this  correlation  of  acts  and  the 
physical  adjustment  essential  to  it,  otherwise  we 
could  not  survive  in  the  struggle  with  the  changing 
elements  of  our  environment. 

Reflexes  become  so  deeply  seated  that  they 
characterize  us  In  a  large  measure.  Many  of  them 
(instinctive)  are  Inherent  and  vital  to  our  exist- 
ence. They  result  from  intuitive  feelings  which  are 
often  the  most  powerful  motives  of  action,  strong- 
er than  rational  decisions  and,  accordingly.  In  our 
daily  lives,  most  of  the  things  that  we  do  are 


The  Nature  of  Performance  33 

prompted  by  feelings.  We  enjoy  acting  in  re- 
sponse to  our  feelings  and  often  have  to  make 
strong  effort  for  self-control  in  order  to  use  rea- 
son. This  is  true  with  even  the  highest  types  of 
persons  and  requires  us  to  be  tactful  in  our  asso- 
ciations. Therefore,  if  we  are  to  understand  hu- 
man nature  we  must  realize  that  it  is  animal  na- 
ture and  obeys  biologic  laws. 


Ill 

ORGANIZATION  IN  PERFORMANCE 

In  all  relations  in  which  we  are  concerned  with 
efficiency  in  action,  we  are  subject  to  the  natural 
laws  of  organization.  That  is  to  say — efficiency 
involves  organization,  which  is  differentiation  of  a 
whole  into  parts  with  special  functions  in  a  divis- 
ion of  labor,  and  integration  of  these  parts  to 
function  as  a  whole.  This  is  standardization,  al- 
location and  co-ordination  of  procedure  and  the 
structural  units  essential  to  it,  restricting  the  indi- 
vidual freedom  of  units  for  the  sake  of  intensive 
action  and  its  compensations.  Organization  there- 
fore, is  specialization  for  efficiency  and  efficiency 
in  any  one  or  all  functions  is  high  or  low  according 
to  the  degree  of  specialization  attained  by  the  or- 
ganization for  their  performance.  The  functions 
which  constitute  life  processes  are  the  same  in  a 
clam  as  in  the  human  organism  but  the  degree  of 
specialization  differs  greatly.  Likewise,  with  cor- 
porate organizations,  great  differences  in  degree 
of  specialization  exist  among  them  and  intensive 

34 


Organization  in  Performance  35 

industry  can  develop  only  as  organization  becomes 
more  and  more  complex. 

Transformations  in  energy  can  take  place  only 
through  corresponding  changes  in  matter  and  pro- 
cedure of  all  kinds  depends  upon  correlated  struc- 
ture. Structure  and  function  are  therefore  in- 
separable; neither  precedes  the  other  in  organi- 
zation. They  develop  simultaneously  and  in  any 
consideration  they  are  merely  two  aspects  of  the 
one  thing — Organization.  We  cannot,  therefore, 
have  a  function  highly  developed  in  any  organiza- 
tion unless  we  have  also  the  physical  structure  de- 
veloped accordingly  and  we  must  recognize  this 
principle  when  we  work  out  efficiency  problems. 
The  engineers  may  work  out  efficiency  methods 
and  procedure  but  It  is  not  until  the  physical  or- 
ganization is  adjusted  that  new  procedure  be- 
comes actual. 

Performance,  when  completely  standardized,  is 
mechanical  and,  as  to  the  maintenance  of  routine 
standard  performance  under  fixed  conditions,  an 
organization  is  a  machine  but  mechanical  per- 
formance is  the  limit  of  the  capacity  of  machines 
in  performance.  They  cannot  undertake  new  pro- 
cedure, even  to  the  extent  of  slight  adaptations  to 
new  conditions,  because  they  lack  power  of  per- 
ception, discrimination,  recall,  and  of  the  selection 


36         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

of  courses  of  action.  There  are  thus  two  phases 
of  performance  essential  to  organization  in  its 
higher  types,  one  is  mechanical  performance  and 
the  other  is  intelligent  performance.  Both  phases 
are  characteristic  of  organisms  and  therefore,  cor- 
porate groups  of  organisms,  but  the  first  only  is 
characteristic  of  machines.  Organization  in  its 
higher  types  therefore  involves  intelligent  direc- 
tion over  specialized  operating  units,  in  so  far 
as  their  activities  must  be  varied  and  co-ordinated, 
and  means  for  automatic  apprisal  of  the  neces- 
sity for  variation  of  procedure.  This  relationship 
between  controlling  authority  and  specialized 
units  with  respect  to  any  or  all  functions  is  called 
"centralization."  Specific  procedure,  when  com- 
pletely standardized,  is  performed  with  least  ex- 
penditure of  energy  and  most  perfectly  when  left 
to  its  respective  operating  units  without  reference 
to  central  authority  and  this  delegation  of  respon- 
sibility by  controlling  authority  to  specialized 
units  is  called  "decentralization."  Increasing 
complexity,  as  organization  develops,  is  shown  by 
the  appearance  of  intermediate  directorates  of 
various  degrees  of  authority  between  the  most 
highly  specialized  operating  units  and  the  central 
directorate,  and  differentiation  along  intelligence 
levels. 


Organization  in  Performance  37 

Decision  by  controlling  authority  is  therefore 
essential  in  organization  and  this  is  autocratic 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  efficiency  in  production 
requires  that  every  unit  of  structure,  however 
small,  be  so  integrated  in  the  whole  that  its  expres- 
sion will  be  perceived  by  controlling  authority  and 
administration  effected  accordingly  for  rational 
procedure  which,  in  a  corporate  organization,  in- 
cludes justice  and  equality  in  dealing  for  all  mem- 
bers, uniform  standards,  restriction  of  arbitrary 
practices  and  personal  favoritism,  etc.  Thus,  ac- 
cording to  natural  law,  there  is  a  balance  between 
autocratic  direction  and  democratic  recognition 
of  all  rational  dictates  of  structural  units  in  organ- 
ization, which  is  essential  to  maximum  production, 
no  matter  what  the  form  of  organization  may  be. 
If  autocratic  direction  does  not  heed  the  expres- 
sion  of  the  operating  units,  production  is  retarded 
and,  if  the  operating  units  obstruct  controlling 
authority,  production  is  retarded  and  the  survival 
of  an  organization  depends  upon  the  maintenance 
of  this  balance  in  the  struggle  with  the  elements 
of  its  environment. 

In  industry  then,  channels  for  honest  expres- 
sion by  individual  workers  and  its  perception  by 
controlling   authority   are   vital   to   organization. 


'.VMH'77 


38         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

When  the  members  of  departments  or  working 
units  of  an  industrial  organization  meet  together 
frequently  under  conditions  of  fair  dealing  and 
sincere  conferential  relations  with  administrative 
officers  who  seriously  give  intelligible  explana- 
tions, demonstrations,  and  progress  reports  and 
inspire  free  expression  of  individual  views,  con- 
ceptions of  differences  of  interests  between  man- 
agers and  line  workers  do  not  prevail.  Incentives 
to  production  under  such  relations  are  vastly 
greater  than  under  an  autocratic  regime  which 
fosters  only  master  and  servant  relations  stifling 
cooperation  for  maximum  production  and  its  just 
distribution  because  conflicting  interests  between 
managers  and  line  workers  obviously  exist. 

Organization  in  performance  is  universal  in 
nature.  It  is  the  basis  of  all  development.  It  is 
real,  not  artificial,  and  our  performance  must  con- 
form to  it  as  the  scheme  of  nature  for  progressive 
action.  In  an  industrial  organization  we  are  a 
group  of  persons  occupying  differentiated  and  in- 
tegrated positions  in  a  division  of  labor  and  we 
are  banded  together  as  a  whole  to  carry  out  our 
project.  Persons  in  positions  correlated  for 
special  sets  of  functions  constitute  units  of  the  or- 
ganization and,  as  aggregated  for  more  general 
functions,  constitute  larger  parts. 


Organization  in  Performance  39 

When  a  single  unit  of  the  organization  has 
many  functions  it  is  generalized  and  the  functions, 
though  they  exist,  are  performed  with  much  less 
precision,  harmony,  and  efficiency  than  when  there 
is  a  more  complete  division  of  labor  effected 
through  differentiation  of  the  structure  into  more 
specific  parts,  and  integration  of  the  parts.  In 
spite  of  all  individual  efforts,  we  cannot  perform 
functions  with  highest  efficiency  unless  we  are  or- 
ganized to  perform  them,  that  is,  we  must  devel- 
op systems  for  procedure  and  fix  co-ordinated  re- 
sponsibilities in  positions  with  clear  definition  as 
to  performance  and  status. 

The  development  of  an  organization  in  this 
way  subscribes  to  the  principle  in  industry  that 
workers  occupy  specific  positions  in  a  division  of 
labor  utilizing  and  developing  capital.  This  con- 
ception differs  vitally  from  the  traditional  view 
of  labor  as  a  commodity  to  be  bought  by  the  own- 
ers or  representatives  of  capital  and  utilized  upon 
their  capital.  The  one  view  gives  the  worker 
membership  for  efficiency  in  the  industrial  in- 
stitution and  is  democratic.  The  other  view 
disregards  the  organization  of  workers  as  living 
individuals  and  gives  them  no  position  as  such  in 
industry;    it  admits  only  of  bargaining  for  their 


40         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

labor  at  market  prices,  or  for  what  they  are  forced 
by  circumstances  to  take.  This  is  arbitrary,  auto- 
cratic, and  "short  sighted"  and,  with  development 
in  industrial  organization,  it  cannot  hold  because 
it  is  against  the  principles  of  organization,  which 
are  primarily  biological  and  not  mechanical. 

The  traditional  view  that  labor  is  a  commodity 
parallels  another  instance  in  our  economic  life  of 
an  arbitrary  view  point  once  taken  and  later  aban- 
doned. The  theory  of  John  Stuart  Mill  that 
those  who  worked  directly  upon  commodities 
were  producers  of  wealth  and  that  others,  such 
as  accountants,  sales  people,  etc.,  who  performed 
other  services,  were  non-producers  of  it,  made  a 
purely  superficial  distinction.  Material  wealth 
has  value  only  as  It  can  render  service  and  there- 
fore, in  the  end,  all  labor  is  for  production  of  ser- 
vice and  It  Is  now  recognized  that  every  one  who 
performs  a  useful  service,  whether  a  producer  of 
material  wealth  or  not,  is  a  producer. 

Fundamentally,  all  persons  in  industry,  from 
president  to  laborer,  are  workers,  utilizing  and 
developing  capital,  and  each  worker  occupies  a 
specific  position  In  an  organization  for  the  division 
of  labor,  which  must  be  defined  and  integrated  as 
a  part  of  the  organization  as  a  whole  for  efficiency 


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(  ittttr  ■iymtols  reftr  to  ^b"<ltrd^p.c^fitJtlot^i 

LEGEND 


Organization  in  Performance  41 

in  production  to  the  extent  at  least  to  warrant  pro- 
viding for  the  incumbent,  the  working  conditions, 
the  means  for  conference  with  management,  and 
the  financial  returns  which  are  necessary  to  meet 
the  essential  demands  of  his  living  relations  to  en- 
vironment on  and  off  the  "job."  Therefore,  as 
we  develop  special  organization  for  standardizing 
operations  and  fixing  responsibilities,  including 
proper  placement,  follow-up,  conference,  and  ad- 
justment of  workers,  we  develop  efficiency  in  pro- 
duction and  reduction  of  its  unit  cost. 

Organization  Charting  is  a  means  of 
graphically  representing  the  structure,  the  func- 
tions, and  the  positions  of  a  corporate  organiza- 
tion and  indicating  the  lines  of  authority  and  re- 
sponsibility in  order  that  the  scheme  of  organiza- 
tion may  be  visualized.  This  is  of  importance  in 
analyzing,  planning,  defining,  standardizing,  and 
for  instruction  as  to  status  of  positions  and  the 
character  of  the  organization. 

An  organization  chart  must  figure  the  differen- 
tiation and  integration  in  the  organization.  Struc- 
ture is  the  visible  aspect  of  the  organization  by 
which  this  is  shown  and  therefore  can  be  drawn. 
The  identity  of  parts  and  their  functions  may  then 
be  shown  by  labeling  (See  Fig.  i).    A  chart  set- 


42         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

ting  forth  functions  alone  may  be  useful  in  func- 
tional analyses  (see  page  13)  but  it  does  not  fig- 
ure differentiation  and  integration  in  organization 
and  is  therefore  not  an  organization  chart  in  a 
complete  sense. 

Procedure  in  Organization  Charting 
(See   Fig.    i) 

1.  A  clear  distinction  should  be  made  between 
structure  and  function. 

2.  Units  of  structure  should  be  drawn  to  repre- 
sent persons  in  positions  or  groups  of  positions 
with  distinct  functions  as  a  whole,  but  co-ordinat- 
ed with  other  units  (one  person  may,  under  un- 
usual circumstances,  occupy  more  than  one  posi- 
tion). 

3.  Each  unit  should  be  labeled  as  to  Name, 
Functions,  and  the  Positions  included,  and  the 
Names  of  Incumbents,  if  desired. 

4.  A  standard  system  of  naming  the  units 
should  be  followed  throughout — Department, 
Division,  Section,  Branch  or  Bureau,  Unit — ac- 
cording to  ranking  importance. 

In  this  series  of  divisions  the  Department  is 
a  major  division  of  the  organization, coming  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  the  General  Manage- 
ment.   The  Division  is  the  main  sub-division  of  a 


Organization  in  Performance  43 

Department,  the  Section  is  the  main  sub-division 
of  a  Division,  etc.  Each  one  of  these  parts  of  the 
organization  from  Department  to  Unit  must  have 
an  identity  as  an  organization  in  itself,  that  is,  it 
must  consists  of  persons  in  differentiated  positions 
with  distinct  functions  as  a  whole,  i.  e.,  a  group  of 
ledger  clerks  in  the  "Billing  Unit"  would  not 
usually  constitute  a  special  unit  of  organization 
because  they  probably  would  not  be  performing  a 
complete  set  of  functions,  differentiated  and  in- 
tegrated as  a  whole. 

There  are  frequently  small  sub-divisions  of  an 
organization  coming  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  General  Management,  such  as  Clerical, 
Buildings,  etc.,  which  do  not  have  the  ranking 
importance  to  be  classed  as  Departments.  It  is 
usual  in  such  cases  to  give  a  designation  of  min- 
or significance,  such  as  Section,  Branch  or  Unit. 

5.  Lines  of  authority  and  Executive,  Staff,  and 
Line  relationship  are  shown  as  follows; 

Executive — Square  cornered  block  in  dominant 
position. 

(Executive  Service — Establishing  procedure 
and  organization;  Issuing  orders  and  directions; 
Making  decisions,  etc.). 

Staf — Round  cornered  block  in  subordinate  po- 


44         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

sition  connected  from  the  center  of  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  block  of  its  next  superior  unit  at 
point  to  one  side  of  the  center. 

(Furnishing  information  and  advice  to  Execu- 
tives; Collecting  data  ;  Making  reports;  Propos- 
ing plans,  etc.). 

Line — Square  cornered  block  in  subordinate 
position  connected  from  the  center  of  the  top  to 
the  center  of  the  bottom  of  its  next  superior  execu- 
tive block. 

(Carrying  out  orders  and  executive  directions 
and  the  routine  operations  of  the  business). 


IV 


KEY    TO    ANALYSIS    AND    CLASSIFICA- 
TION  OF  PERFORMANCE  IN  VOCA- 
TIONAL RELATIONS 

Note: — This  Key  embraces  an  analytical  "Check  List 
of  Items  in  Performance  Essential  to  Technique  in  Oc- 
cupations" for  use  in  examining  persons  and  occupations 
and  an  "Outline  of  Intelligent  Performance  in  Organi- 
zation" so  that  with  it,  required  performance  in  oc- 
cupations and  the  performance  for  which  persons  are 
adapted  may  be  characterized  and  then  classified  accord- 
ing to  production  status  and  also  according  to  the  kinds 
of  technique  involved. 

Performance  may  be  analyzed  into  its  component  acts 
and  therefore  classified  according  to  the  kinds  of  acts 
which  compose  it.  Concerning  any  occupation  or  position, 
there  are  items  in  performance  which  are  not  technical 
but  are  essential  to  technique  and  consideration  of  the 
technique  is  required  for  relevant  judgment.  Discovery 
of  these  items  and  their  collection  into  a  concrete  statement 
constitutes  a  characterization  of  performance  by  which 
the  nature  of  its  acts  will  be  distinctly  set  forth.  Charac- 
terization of  performance  in  this  manner  therefore  con- 
stitutes a  basis  for  rational  judgment  of  workers,  or  pro- 
spective workers,  and  for  graded  classification  of  their 
occupations  or  positions,  as  well  as  for  functional  classifica- 
tion according  to  the  kinds  of  technique  involved. 

45 


46         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

CHECK    LIST   OF   ITEMS    IN    PERFORMANCE    ESSENTIAL   TO 
TECHNIQUE  IN  OCCUPATIONS 

Note: — ^We  can  observe  the  developmental  stages  of 
thought  and  performance  and  outline  them  by  noting  items 
which  are  characteristic.  On  this  basis,  degrees  of  in- 
telligence may  be  determined  and  stated,  and,  in  character- 
izing performance,  we  must  consider  its  intelligence  fea- 
tures as  of  primary  importance  because  they  specify  ca- 
pacity for  volitional  accomplishment.  Second  to  this,  the 
inclusion  in  the  performance  of  features  pertaining  to 
particular  kinds  of  thought  and  action,  association,  and 
enforced  living  conditions,  should  be  considered. 

The  following  list  should  be  regarded  as  suggestive  but 
not  exhaustive. 

Check,    Weigh    (by    checking    once,    twice,    or    three 
times).  Extend,  and  Summarize  Items  for  Characteriza- 
tion. 
Physical — 

( 1 )  General  application  with  good  health. 

(2)  Application  enduring  under  specially  ardent  cir- 
cumstances of ; ? 

(3)  Application    of   physical   strength    to    the    par- 
ticular degree  of ? 

(4)  Application  of  certain  parts  of  the  body  though 
others  may   be   impaired ;   ; 

(5)  Standing, 

(6)  Walking. 

(7)  Lifting. 

(8)  Pulling. 

(9)  Handling. 

(10)  Delicate  application  of  the  sense  of  touch,  sight, 
hearing,  etc. 

(11)  Presenting  a  military  bearing,  etc. 


Key  to  Analysis  and  Classification  47 

Mental — 
Perception. 

(i)  Accurate  observation — 

a — Attention  to  objects  with  concentration  and 
with  trust  in  and  intention  to  recall  their 
impressions, 
b — Quick  perception  of  essential  elements  and 
their  integration — original  analyses  and 
syntheses  and  organization  of  ideas. 
Memory. 

(2)  Recognition  of  associations,  real  or  accidental, 
essential  to  the  memory  of  ideas. 

Discrimination. 

(3)  Judgment  of  qualities  by  comparison  with  es- 
tablished standards. 

(4)  Analyses  and  classifications  by  established  pro- 
cedure. 

Response  to  dictates. 

(5)  Initiation  of  action. 

(6)  Maintenance  of  established  standards; ? 

(7)  Resourceful  application  of  courses  of  action. 

(8)  Close  application  in  routine  standard  practice; 
?  ordering,  scheduling,  dispatching. 

Planning. 

(9)  Constructive  imagination  and  the  development 
of  new  courses  of  action; ? 

(10)  Establishing  standards;  ? 

Adherence  to  truth  and  trust. 

(11)  Tenacious  adherence  to  fact  in  spite  of  adverse 
consequences. 

(12)  Custody  of  property  and  information  in  trust. 
Dealing,  Association,   and   Expression  as  to  Kinds  of 

Thought  and  Action. 

(13)  Dealing  with  fairness. 


48         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 


(14 
(15 


(16 
(17 
(18 
(19 

(20 
(21 

(22 


(23 
(24 

(25 
(26 
(27 
(28 


(29 
(30 

(31 

(32 
(33 


Promptly  making  and  holding  to  decisions  with 
self  reliance  and  courage  of  convictions. 
Spontaneous    expression    of    self-reliance    and 
ability  to  carry  out  a  project,  sufficient  to  inspire 
the  respect,  trust,  and  confidence  of  others  and 
their  subordination  to  leadership. 
Delegating  performance. 
Organizing  division  of  labor. 
Gauging  correctly  the  ability  of  others. 
Gauging  correctly  the  effect  of  instruction  of 
others  and  adapting  it  accordingly. 
Ardent  search  for  fact. 

Invention — combination  of  structural  elements 
for  advantage  in  performance. 
Accepting  circumstances  as  a  matter  of  course 
without   generalizing   as   conspiringly   antagon- 
istic. 

Judging  human  temperament. 
Intuitive  action  to  command  and  sustain  favor- 
able attention. 

Resourceful  treatment  to  sustain  interest. 
Association  with  poise  and  good  address. 
Tactful  association  with  others. 
Expression  of   inspired   sentiment   and   thought 
through  some  medium  to  inspire  similar  senti- 
ment and  thought  in  others — literature,  science, 
art,  religion,  etc. 
Devising  propoganda. 

Spontaneous    expression    of    simple    tastes    and 
cleanliness. 

Spontaneous  expression  of  desire  to  serve  rather 
than  to  be  served. 
Spontaneous  expression  of  humility. 
Modest  spontaneous  expression  of  liking  for  in- 
tellectual pleasures. 


Key  to  Analysis  and  Classification  49 

(34)    Spontaneous  expression  in  any  particular  fields 
of  thought  or  endeavor  which  may  be  relevant  in 
performance — 
Science — pursuit  of    (research)    or  application  of 
(professions  and  engineering)  ; 

Mathematics,  Accounting,  etc. 

Physical  Sciences. 

Natural  Sciences. 

Economics,  Political  and  Social  Sciences,  inc. 
hz-w  Government,  Finance,  etc. 
Letters — 

Journalism  and  Literature. 

Acting. 

Public  Speaking. 

Lexicography  and  Spelling. 

Language. 
Art — 

Music. 

Sketching,  Painting,  Photography. 

Designing. 

Modeling. 

Architecture. 

Drafting. 

Penmanship. 
Craftmanship  and  Manufacture — 

Mechanical  Trades. 

Machine  Operating. 

Other  Mechanical  Manipulations. 
Clerical  Routine  Operations — 

Stenography. 

General  Office  Practice. 
Agriculture  and  Animal   Industry — 

Farming. 

Darying. 

Stock  Raising. 


50         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Commerce — 
Selling. 
Purchasing. 
Distributing. 
General  Trading. 
Social  Development — 
Teaching. 

Industrial  Relations. 
Preaching. 

Missionary    Work — religious,    medical     and 

social  service  or  philanthropy. 

(35)   Spontaneous    expression    toward    any    particular 

conditions  of  living  environment  which  may  be  relevant 

in  performance,  either  during  or  outside  of  working  hours, 

i.  e. — 

Expression  as  to  Enforced  Living  Conditions. 
Motion  and  Activity. 
Shifting  Scenes. 
Transient  Abodes. 
City  Life  and  Artificial  Things. 
Individual   Freedom. 
Social  Activities. 
Out  of  Door  Pursuits. 
Sea  Life. 
Military  Life. 
Sport. 

Quiet  and  Stillness. 
Sameness. 
Home  Life. 

Rural  Life  and  Nature. 
Family  Responsibilities. 
Solitary  Activities. 
In  Door  Pursuits. 
Note: — Add  any  other  items  which  may  be  relevant  to 
the  performance  being  considered. 


Key   to  Analysis  and  Classification  51 

OUTLINE   OF   INTELLIGENT    PERFORMANCE    IN    ORGANIZA- 
TION CLASSIFYING  PERFORMANCE  ACCORDING  TO 
ITS    PRODUCTION    STATUS 

Note: — The  production  status  of  performance  in  organ- 
ized division  of  labor  corresponds  to  its  intelligence  status 
because  performance  ranges  through  management  and 
routine  standard  practice  according  to  its  production  con- 
trol on  account  of  the  degree  and  scope  of  reasoning  and 
planning  or  decision  and  skill  involved,  w^hich  verifies  the 
fact  that  intelligence  is  capacity  for  volitional  accomplish- 
ment. Grading  occupational  performance  according  to 
its  intelligence  status  therefore  classifies  it  according  to  its 
production  status  and  the  intelligence  status  of  perform- 
ance is  the  basis  for  its  classification  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing outline. 

/.  Management 

Constructive  imagination  with  formulation  and  develop- 
ment of  consequent  courses  of  action  even  against  environ- 
mental and  instinctive  dictates; 

Orignial  analyses  and  classifications  on  the  basis  of 
fundamental  likenesses  and  differences ;  Establishing  stand- 
ards ; 

Accurate  observation ;  Resourceful  application  of  courses 
of  action. 

Constituting  two  kinds  of  service  applying  in  an  or- 
ganization either  with  general  scope  or  in  departmental 
relationship : 

I.  Executive  Service,  including  all  of  the  following 
kinds  of  performance : 

Organization — analyzing   and   classifying  the   func- 


52         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

tions  in  a  division  of  labor;  Constructing  and  integrating 
the  essential  positions  for  the  performance  of  the  functions. 

Judgment  of  others — gauging  correctly  the  ability 
of  others  for  placement  in  the  scheme  of  organization. 

Decisions — fair,  definite,  prompt,  and  logical,  taking 
fair  chances  and  holding  with  moral  courage  of  convictions 
and  self-reliance  regardless  of  criticism. 

Association — ^viath  poise  and  spontaneous  expression 
of  self-reliance  and  ability  to  carry  out  a  project,  sufficient 
to  inspire  the  respect,  trust  and  confidence  of  others  and 
their  subordination  to  leadership. 

Instruction — gauging  correctly  its  effect  and  adapt- 
ing it  accordingly. 

2.  Staff  Service,  including  informational,  advisory,  or 
development  performance  of  various  kinds,  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Investigation  or  research — ardent  search  for  dis- 
covery of  facts,  scientific,  commercial,  etc.;  Systematizing 
and  interpreting  the  meaning  of  disclosures  in  concrete 
relations;  reporting  results  of  research  with  recommenda- 
tions. 

Invention — study  of  known  facts  and  methods  and 
devising  means  for  operation  with  improvement  in  quality 
of  product,  greater  economy,  efficiency,  etc. ;  Devising  new 
combinations  of  elements  for  these  purposes. 

Compilation  of  data — to  furnish  information  of  any 
kind — events,  current  operations,  financial  status,  environ- 
mental conditions,  etc. ;  Reporting  information ;  Publica- 
tion. 

Reflecting  inspired  sentiment  through  some  me- 
dium of  expression  to  inspire  similar  sentiment  in  others 
(includes  the  performance  of  all  kinds  of  art.). 

Devising  propoganda — advertising,  etc. 


Key  to  Analysis  and  Classification  53 

A.  General  Management  Class  i 

Executive  service  of  the  general  organization  including 
organization  and  administration  for  efficiency  in  Financ- 
ing, Production,  Sales,  and  adjustment  of  relations  with 
Investors,  the  Public,  and  the  Personnel. 

In  this  class  is  the  performance  of  various  grades  per- 
taining to  the  positions  of  President,  Vice  President,  Gen- 
eral Manager,  etc.,  in  any  organization. 

B.  Departmental  and  Associate  Management     Class  2 

Executive  and  Staff  Service  of  departmental  scope  or 
of  interdepartmental  scope  but  specialized  or  limited  as  to 
function. 

In  this  class  is  the  performance  of  various  grades  per- 
taining to  positions  of  managers  of  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions of  the  organization  and  to  the  various  positions 
of  Executive  and  Staff  Assistants,  the  number  of  grades 
depending  upon  the  complexity  of  the  organization. 

//.  Line  Service 

Routine  standard  performance  dictated  by  authority  or 
experience;  Constructive  imagination  of  a  more  limited 
character  than  in  "I"  or  of  negligible  importance, 

A.  Supervision  Class  3 

Judgment  of  qualities  by  comparison  with  established 
standards;  Analyses  and  Classifications  by  established  pro- 
cedure ;  Execution  of  intricate  standard  practice  including 
delegation  of  performance  and  direction  of  others;  Deal- 
ing with  fairness  and  association  with  poise  and  the  spon- 
taneous expression  of  self-reliance,  and  ability  to  carry 
out  a  project,  sufficient  to  inspire  the  respect,  trust  and 


54         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

confidence  of  others  and  their  subordination  to  leadership ; 
Promptly  making  and  holding  to  decisions  with  self  re- 
liance and  courage  of  convictions;  Accurate  observation; 
Resourceful  application  of  courses  of  action;  Limited  in- 
vestigations and  recommendations. 

B.  Highly  Skilled  Service  Class  4 

Judgment  of  qualities  by  comparison  v^^ith  established 
standards;  Analyses  by  established  procedure;  Perform- 
ance of  intricate,  complicated  and  exacting  details  un- 
der limited  supervison — dictated  by  long  experience;  Ad- 
ministration in  detailed  procedure  concerning  only  per- 
formance in  positions  of  lower  grade. 

C.  Skilled  Service  Class  5 

General  performance  as  for  "B"  but  less  intricate  and 
exacting  and  subject  to  more  supervision;  Administra- 
tion over  minor  details  only  concerning  performance  in 
positions  of  lower  grade. 

D.  Semi-skilled    Service  Class  6 

Tasks  requiring  skill  acquired  by  comparatively  short 
periods  of  experience;  Routine  of  limited  scope — without 
close  supervision ;  Assumption  of  minor  responsibilities 
with  self  reliance. 

E.  Unskilled  Service  Class  7 

Simple  tasks  in  which  skill  is  acquired  with  compara- 
tively little  experience  and  performance  requires  no  pre- 
vious technical  training  or  experience — subject  to  super- 
vision or  direction  almost  entirely. 


STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  AND 

GRADED  CLASSIFICATION  FOR 

POSITIONS 

The  essential  performance  in  any  position  or 
OCCUPATION  may  be  specifically  determined  and 
GRADED  upon  a  natural  Intelligence  Scale  with  the  aid  of 
the  Key,  preceding,  and  the  first  qualification  of  incum- 
bents must  be  that  they  can  meet  these  performance  re- 
quirements by  corresponding  intelligence  endowments. 
Moreover,  grading  the  performance  of  a  position  or  oc- 
cupation upon  this  scale  classifies  it  according  to  its  pro- 
duction status  because  it  is  a  fact  that  the  production 
value  of  performance  in  organized  division  of  labor  is  in 
proportion  to  its  intelligence  status.  That  is  to  say,  in 
organized  division  of  labor,  all  positions  are  concerned 
with  production  and  performance  ranges  through  man- 
agement and  routine  standard  practice  according  to  the 
status  of  reasoning  and  planning,  or  of  the  decisions  and 
skill  involved  in  production  control.  The  higher  the 
degree  or  the  greater  the  extent  of  the  intelligence  which 
characterizes  the  performance  required  in  a  position,  the 
greater  is  the  control  of  production  and  the  lower  the  de- 
gree or  the  less  the  extent,  the  more  is  the  performance 
machine  like  and  the  less  is  its  control.  Men  and  ma- 
chines, however,  are  not  to  be  confused.  The  man  is 
always  called  upon  for  voluntary  control  but  the  machine 
never  can  exercise  such  functions  as  this  involves. 

55 


56        Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

The  performance  in  any  position  also  may  be 
REGARDED  as  of  TWO  PHASES,  namely, — ^technical,  or 
that  pertaining  to  a  special  industry  and  kind  of  work 
and  requiring  technical  experience;  and  non-techni- 
cal, or  that  pertaining  to  personal  adaptations  to  the 
environment  of  the  position  and  essential  to  its  technical 
performance,  though  not  necessarily  specific,  physical  and 
mental,  as  developed  from  hereditary  endowments  under 
environmental  influences  as  a  whole.  The  non-technical 
features  of  performance  determine  efficiency  or  involve 
reactions  upon  others — superiors,  subordinates,  associates, 
patrons,  or  competitors.  Characteristics,  physical  and 
mental,  by  which  this  performance  is  prompted,  are  the 
variables  which  make  personal  differences.  They  develop 
under  environmental  influences  from  the  chance  combin- 
ations of  elements  derived  paternally  and  in  the  living 
world  broadly,  produce  the  varieties  which  we  call  adap- 
tations or  misfits  according  to  the  environmental  relations 
in  which  we  find  them. 

The  essential  performance  in  any  position  may  there- 
fore be  analyzed  according  to  these  principles,  and  speci- 
fications made  up  (See  Fig.  ii,  12,  13). 

Procedure  of  Analyses,  Specification,  and  Graded  Classi- 
fication of  Positions 

In  General 

Before  positions  can  be  definitely  classified  it  is  neces- 
sary to  establish  specifications  by  which  they  shall  be  de- 
fined and  standard  titles  by  which  they  shall  be  desig- 
nated. These  specifications  should  include  a  concise  sum- 
mary analysis  of  the  essential  performance  pertaining  to 
each  position.     It  is  also  important  to  include,  for  each 


Standard  Specifications  for  Positions  57 

position,  a  statement  of  the  training  and  experience  neces- 
sary to  qualify  persons  for  appointment  to  the  position. 

The  information  necessary  for  making  up  correct  speci- 
fications is  not  possessed  by  any  one  person.  It  must  there- 
fore be  collected  from  a  number  of  persons  according  to 
their  acquaintance  with  the  various  positions.  Among 
these  should  be  the  incumbents  of  the  positions  themselves 
because  they  know  the  performance  of  their  positions  bet- 
ter than  others. 

After  specifications  have  been  established,  positions 
should  be  graded  according  to  their  relative  control  of  pro- 
duction on  account  of  the  reasoning  and  planning  or  de- 
cisions and  skill  involved  in  their  performance. 

Positions  should  then  be  segregated  into  graded  series 
according  to  kinds  of  service,  by  functional  classification. 
Essential  Steps 

0.  Preliminary  Step,  see  No.  8.* 

1.  By  means  of  a  questionnaire  or  instruction  blank, 
collect  data  as  to  the  performance  of  positions  from  their 
incumbents  and  their  supervisors  (see  Fig.  14). 

2.  Classify  these  returns  tentatively,  according  to  the 
kinds  of  work  involved  and  the  positions  included. 

3.  Note  the  positions  which  have  essentially  the  same 
•performance  under  different  titles  and  collect  their  blanks 
under  the  same  title. 

4.  Note  the  positions  which  have  the  same  title  but 
different  performance  and  separate  their  blanks,  giving 
them  different  titles. 

5.  Using  an  "Analyses  Record"  form  (see  Fig.  10) 
for  each  position,  list  the  essential  items  of  technical  per- 
formance, making  a  complete  study  of  the  performance 
in  each  case. 

6.  In  the  Analyses  Record,  list  the  essential  items  of 


58         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

non-technical  performance,  using  the  "Check  List"  of  the 
Key  preceding. 

As  to  exactly  what  this  performance  is,  the  determina- 
tion requires  careful  study  of  the  position  in  question. 
Every  position  from  president  to  laborer  has  a  series  of 
requirements,  not  technical,  but  essential  to  technique, 
which  should  be  set  forth  in  its  specifications  and  called 
for  in  the  examination  of  its  prospective  incumbents,  (see 
specimen  Analyses  Records,  Figs,  ii,  12,  13), 

7.  In  the  Analyses  Record,  state  briefly  the  training  and 
experience  necessary  for  performance. 

8.  According  to  the  "Outline  of  Intelligent  Perform- 
ance in  Organization"  of  the  Key  preceding,  carefully 
classify  the  positions,  using  the  Analyses  Records  made  and 
note  the  classification  in  the  Record  in  each  case. 

Sub-divide  any  class  if  there  is  a  difference  as  to  in- 
telligence grade  of  performance  between  positions  included. 

This  specifies  the  intelligence  status  of  the  performance 
in  each  position,  and  therefore  the  standard  for  the  incum- 
bent selected  and  grades  the  positions  upon  this  as  a 
fundamental  basis  for  appraisal  in  compensation  rating. 

This  work  may  be  facilitated  by  having  this  Outline  of 
Performance,  as  far  as  its  several  classes  are  concerned, 
arranged  as  a  series  of  forms  on  loose  guides  (see  Figs. 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8),  one  of  each  class,  with  interleaves 
(Fig.  9)  for  sub-division  and  extension,  so  that  the  Analy- 
sis Record  cards  for  positions  may  be  readily  sorted  and 
placed  according  to  the  guides. 

Spaces  on  the  guides,  as  shown,  are  arranged  for  listing 
the  titles  of  positions  included.  (The  titles  appearing  on 
the  guides,  as  shown,  are  merely  illustrative).  If  these 
are  entered  across  the  guides  and  those  of  the  same  or 
allied  lines  of  work  are  given  the  same  order  of  entry  in 
all  classes,  definite  lines  of  advancement  will  be  indi- 


Standard  Specifications  for  Positions  59 

cated,  as  shown  by  some  of  the  specimen  entries  made. 
The  spacing  for  entry  of  titles  may  be  extended  by  using 
an  interleaf  (Fig.  9).    *This  summary  classification 

MAY  BE  MADE  TENTATIVELY  BEFORE  MAKING  OUT  THE 
COMPLETE  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE  POSITIONS  BY 
SIMPLY  ENTERING  THE  TITLES  UPON  THESE  BLANKS 
FROM  THE  MENTAL  CONCEPTIONS  OF  THE  POSITIONS  AS 
ACCEPTED  IN  GENERAL  USUAGE.  WHEN  THIS  IS  DONE, 
THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  DEFINITE  ANALYSES  AND  SPECIFI- 
CATIONS WILL  BE  REALIZED  AND  THE  COMPREHENSIVE- 
NESS OF  THE  PLAN  AND  THE  LACK  OF  DEFINITION  AND 
UNIFORMITY  WITHOUT  IT  WILL  BE  APPRECIATED.  FOR 
THIS  REASON  IT  IS  WELL  TO  DO  THIS  AS  A  PRELIxMINARY 
STEP   IN   A   SURVEY. 

9.  Assemble  the  Analysis  Records  thus  completed  and 
arrange  them  by  their  graded  classification  after  segre- 
gating them  according  to  kinds  of  service  by  a  final  func- 
tional classification. 

Conclusion 

This  will  then  constitute  the  "Standard  Specifications 
and  Graded  Classification"  for  the  positions  of  your  or- 
ganization and  may  be  kept  in  a  vertical  file  or  as  a  loose 
leaf  book.  The  entries  on  the  guides  will  give  a  "Sum- 
mary Classification." 

Note: 

The  kinds  of  service  into  which  positions  may  be  classi- 
fied differ,  of  course,  among  companies  or  corporations. 
Some,  which  are  typical,  are  as  follows: — 

Auditing  and  Finance  Service — controlling  and  ac- 
counting. 

Clerical  Service — general  office  practice. 


6o         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Commercial  Service — selling,  purchasing,  and  general 
trade. 

Custodial  Service — care  taking,  maintenance  and  oper- 
ation of  buildings. 

Inspectional  Service — making  examinations  and  reports 
as  to  the  maintenance  of  standards  in  materials  and  prac- 
tice. 

Investigational  Service — research  and  recommendations 
as  to  new  standards  and  procedure. 

Mechanical  Service — practice  in  mechanical  opera- 
tions and  manual  labor,  specialized  and  unspecialized. 

Miscellaneous  Professional  Service — engineering  and 
other  established  practice  in  scientific  applications,  general 
organization  and  administration,  etc. 

Taking  each  of  these  with  a  definition  as  to  its  general 
character,  division  may  be  made  into  groups,  in  order  to 
further  segregate  positions  by  function  or  nature  of  work 
performed,  thus — 

Clerical  Service 

Including  positions  in  which  the  incumbents  perform 
or  supervise  routine  work  in  general  office  practice. 

Clerk  Group,  Dispatcher  Group,  Stenographer  and 
Typist  Group,  Storekeeper  Group,  Telephone  Operator 
Group. 

Clerk  Group — Chief  Clerk,  Senior  Clerk,  Clerk,  As- 
sistant Clerk,  Junior  Clerk,  Messenger.  Titles  such  as 
Computer,  Time  Checker,  Comparer,  etc.,  may  be  read- 
ily included  by  these  titles  for  the  various  grades  of  the 
Clerk  Group. 

(See  "Job  Specifications,"  Federal  Board  for  Vocation- 
al Education,  Nov.,  19 19). 


Standard  Specifications  for  Positions 


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76        Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 


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Standard  Specifications  for  Positions  79 

Compensation  Rating 

Basis  the  Control  of  Production 

Under  natural  conditions,  individuals  are  paid  for 
SUPPLY  of  commodities  or  services  according  to  the  con- 
trol which  they  exercise  over  it,  whether  they  actually 
produce  the  commodities  or  services,  or  not.  Therefore, 
the  control  of  production  by  service  is  the  fundamental 
basis  upon  which  it  should  be  rated  for  returns. 

Two  Phases  of  Control  by  Service 

There  are  two  phases  through  which  control  of  produc- 
tion is  exercised  by  service  of  any  kind  which  is  essential 
to  it.  One  is  through  its  supply  in  the  abstract,  and  the 
other  is  through  its  organization  status,  that  is,  through 
its  application  in  the  organized  scheme  for  division  of 
labor  necessary  for  production  as  a  whole,  as  shown  by 
classification  according  to  the  procedure  outlined  above. 

Control  of  Production  by  Supply  of  Service  in  the  Ab- 
stract Rated  by  Bargaining 
Control  of  production  by  service  through  its  supply  in 
the  abstract  is  rated  by  bargaining,  as  with  commodities, 
and  the  relation  between  supply  and  demand  fixes  an  eco- 
nomic rate.  Recognition  of  relative  control  of  production 
on  account  of  the  organization  status  of  service  is  usually 
more  or  less  eclipsed  by  bargaining  for  service  in  the  ab- 
stract and  this  is  conducive  to  a  consciousness  on  the  part 
of  workers  of  inequities  in  dealing,  or  inequality  of  pay 
for  equality  of  service,  and  that  progress  is  not  a  conse- 
quence of  accomplishment.  This  condition  requires  auto- 
cratic methods  and  induces  low  morale. 


8o         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Rating  the  Production  Control  by  Service  Must  Meet  the 
Prevailing  Economic  Rates  and  also  Reflect  Or- 
ganization Status 
The  rating  of  production  control  by  service,  therefore, 
must  meet  the  economic  rate  for  its  supply  in  the  ab- 
stract and  also  must  express  its  relative  production  control 
on  account  of  its  organization  status  when  compared  with 
other  rates  in  the  same  organization,  that  is,  pay  rates 
should  co-ordinate.  Membership  in  an  organization  mer- 
its recognition  of  both  of  these  phases  of  production  con- 
trol because  the  worker  becomes  adapted  to  special  re- 
quirements and  cannot  be  readily  replaced  and  he  is  also 
withdrawn,  to  a  considerable  extent,  from  the  open  labor 
market  because  of  his  special  application.  This  condition 
is  favorable  to  stability.  If  we  offer,  however,  only  the 
economic  rate  for  labor  as  a  commodity,  we  encourage  the 
worker  to  keep  his  services  always  on  the  open  market  and 
encourage  turnover.  The  members  of  an  organization, 
therefore,  if  they  are  completely  integrated,  should  be 
worth  more  to  that  organization  than  they  could  merit  in 
similar  work  in  any  other  organization  and  more  than 
others  in  the  open  market  who  are  not  so  integrated. 
Organized  service  has  thus  more  worth  than  labor  in 
a  commodity  sense  and  rates  which  reflect  organization 
status  and  are  higher  than  market  rates  for  similar  labor 
as  a  commodity,  are  just.  Just  compensation  rating  is 
therefore  not  so  much  a  question  of  what  others  pay  as  it 
is  a  question  of  participation  in  the  yield  of  production 
control,  rates  for  similar  service  in  different  organizations 
selling  their  products  at  corresponding  prices  being  dif- 
ferent according  to  their  differences  in  efficiency  in  pro- 
duction. 


Standard  Specifications  for  Positions  8i 

Minimum  Rate  Established  as  a  Base  in  a  Rating  Scale 
A  position  which  requires  a  mature  person's  full  time 
must  pay  a  return  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  his 
necessary  living  environmental  relations,  otherwise  he  can- 
not furnish  the  kind  of  service  required.  Therefore,  the 
cost  of  living  is  a  primary  factor  in  rating  and  a  mini- 
mum rate  should  be  established  for  mature  workers  to 
comply  with  a  rational  estimate  of  living  demands.  This 
must  be  regarded  as  a  constant  factor  in  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. The  actual  rate  may  change  with  the  purchas- 
ing power  of  money  but  any  self-sustaining  organization 
should,  at  least,  support  all  of  its  members. 

A  scale  of  rates  should  then  be  established  ranging  up- 
ward from  the  minimum  rate  for  mature  persons  of  low- 
est organization  status  and  applying  to  positions  accord- 
ing to  their  classification  as  to  intelligence  status  of  per- 
formance. At  the  same  time,  these  rates  must  be  ade- 
quate to  meet  prevailing  economic  rates  for  any  kind  of 
service  essential  and  should  be  subject  to  rise  and  fall  with 
the  minimum  rate. 

Pay  Ranges 

A  range,  including,  minimum,  maximum,  and  interme- 
diate rates,  should  apply  to  the  positions  of  each  grade  in 
order  to  place  the  service  of  every  position  within  its 
proper  limits  and  to  give  latitude  in  the  application  of 
rates  according  to  the  efficiency  or  merit  of  incumbents' 
performance,  taking  the  minimum  rate  of  a  range  as  the 
rate  for  the  new  worker  in  a  position  within  the  range, 
under  normal  conditions. 

Working  Conditions  Meriting  Special  Compensation 

Especially  hazardous,  arduous,  or  disagreeable  working 
conditions,   which   are   real   and   unavoidable,   should   be 


82         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

compensated  for  in  some  manner.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  adding  a  bonus  or  other  form  of  added  pay- 
ment to  the  rates  which  would  apply  to  positions  effected 
without   regard   to   these   special   conditions. 

Special  Incentives   to   Efficiency 

Financial  incentives  are  essential  to  maximum  produc- 
tion and  should  apply  with  equal  opportunity  to  all  work- 
ers in  an  organization.  There  is  no  real  distinction  be- 
tween workers  in  the  mechanical  trades  and  those  in  the 
offices,  as  to  production.  All  are  producers,  and,  accord- 
ing to  efficiency,  should  receive  compensation  equivalent 
to  the  rates  ranging  from  the  minimum  to  the  maximum 
applying  to  their  respective  positions.  A  "Follow-Up 
of  Progress  Record"  should  reveal  the  facts  with  regard 
to  individual  efficiency  by  exhibiting  periodic  notations  of 
data  regarding  specifications  of  work,  whether  they  relate 
to  daily  production  on  the  basis  of  specific  operations  in 
shop  work,  or  periodic  rating  with  respect  to  other  kinds 
of  items  in  performance  (See  Fig.  i6). 

Financial  incentives,  to  be  effective,  must  be  clearly 
visible  to  the  worker  as  applying  directly  to  his  individual 
efforts  by  appreciable  remuneration  and  must  be  deter- 
mined upon  a  basis  simple  enough  to  be  clearly  understood 
by  the  individuals  concerned.  Secrecy  in  matters  of  this 
kind,  as  in  most  other  matters  of  management,  is  disas- 
trous to  co-operate  relations. 

Summary  of  Elements  Concerned  in  Compensation  Rat- 
ing. 
Following  are  the  elements,  therefore,  with  which  we 
are  concerned  in  compensation  rating: — Economic  Rate, 
Organization  Status,  Cost  of  Living,  Merit  or  Efficiency 
of  Incumbent,  and  Working  Conditions  Meriting  Special 
Compensation. 


Standard  Specifications  for  Positions  83 

The  Advancement  of  Incumbents 

Advancement  Not  Involving  Change  in  Position 

As  stated  above,  advancement  of  an  incumbent  from 
rate  to  rate,  within  a  range  allowed  for  his  position,  on 
the  basis  of  productive  efficiency,  is  essential  as  an  incen- 
tive to  his  development  in  efficiency  and  continuance  in 
service. 

In  salaried  positions,  periodic  limits  of  eligibility  for 
advancement  from  rate  to  rate,  i.  e.,  6  months,  one  year, 
etc.,  promote  equity  in  dealing  and  simplify  the  procedure 
of  adjustment,  especially  because  of  the  fact  that  deter- 
mination of  efficiency  cannot  be  upon  an  exact  basis  and 
practical  distinctions  therefore  cannot  be  made  without 
due  time  for  collection  of  data. 

Adjustment  according  to  merit  necessitates  advance- 
ment when  it  is  due,  therefore,  when  the  time  of  eligi- 
bility arrives,  an  incumbent  should  be  advanced  according 
to  data  shown  by  a  "Follow-Up  of  Progress  Record"  and 
advancement  should  be  noted  in  and  followed  up  from  this 
record. 

Promotion 

Positions  of  the  higher  grades  should  be  filled  by  pro- 
motion of  the  incumbents  of  positions  of  the  lower  grades, 
as  far  as  these  persons  can  meet  necessary  qualifications, 
and  their  standing  with  respect  to  this  should  be  taken 
from  the  "Follow-Up  of  Progress  Record." 


VI 


INDIVIDUAL    PLACEMENT,     FOLLOW- 
UP,  AND  TRAINING 

In  General 

If  we  specify  the  essential  performance  re- 
quirements for  positions  or  occupations  clearly 
and  determine  the  intelligence  status  of  the  per- 
formance in  each  case.  We  Can  Match  Up 
Prospective  Incumbents  to  Them  by  knowing 
definitely  what  to  look  for  in  the  individuals,  and 
in  cases  of  inexperienced  persons,  when  we  have 
matched  their  personal  aptitudes  to  the  specified 
non-technical  performance  of  positions,  we  can 
give  vocational  guidance  and  specify  trainnig 
courses.  Moreover,  by  standardizing  the  method 
for  judgment  by  different  examiners,  their  judg- 
ments will  be  upon  a  fair  basis  for  comparison 
as  they  will  be  derived  by  the  same  procedure. 
The  accuracy  of  a  decision  obtained  will  depend 
upon  the  intelligence  and  experience  of  the  exam- 
iner, the  accuracy  of  the  analysis  of  performance 
in  positions,  and  the  amount  of  evidence  which 

84 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  85 

the  examiner  is  able  to  collect  with  regard  to  cap- 
abilities in  the  individuals  examined  to  meet  the 
requirements  called  for  in  the  specifications.  Test- 
ing, or  collecting  evidence,  should  therefore  be  as 
complete  as  possible  with  methods  available  but 
rational  and  pertinent  to  the  points  called  for  and 
we  thus  avoid  "lump  sum"  judgments  and  guesses 
(See  Fig.  15). 

Procedure  in  Diagnosis  for  Placement 
STEPS 

1.  Using  an  "Analysis  Record"  blank  (See 
Form  9,  the  same  form  as  for  the  position)  for 
each  prospective  incumbent,  have  each  one  make 
out  his  record  for  Previous  Positions  and  Essen- 
tial Training  and  Experience  by  years  (as  pro- 
vided for  in  the  blank). 

If  anyone  is  unable  to  do  this  for  himself,  the 
examiner  should  do  it  from  his  answers  to  ques- 
tions. 

2.  Complete  the  record  of  information  with 
reference  to  items  called  for  upon  the  blank. 

3.  It  may  be  helpful  to  enter  as  Models  the 
names  of  two  persons  known  to  you  whose  place- 
ment is  regarded  as  correct.    This  forms  a  tang- 


86         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

ible  reference  basis  in  the  examination  of  prospec- 
tive incumbents. 

4.   Interview  each  person  directly  or  indirectly 
and  give  any  tests  which  may  be  feasible  with 


The  phases  in  an  examination  of  candidates  may  be  listed 
as  follows :    Personal  Interviews,  Tests,  References. 

Personal  Interviews,  given  by  a  single  examiner  or  by  sev- 
eral, individually  or  collectively,  should  be  so  conducted  as 
to  put  the  candidate  at  ease  and  call  forth  his  free  expression 
relevant  to  the  essentials  of  performance  under  consideration. 
Determinations  by  interview  are  judgments,  impressionistic 
in  character,  which  are  the  only  kinds  of  judgments  obtain- 
able with  regard  to  many  items  of  performance  and  therefore 
the  interview  is  the  most  important  phase  in  examination. 

Tests  are  Physical  and  Mental.  The  physical  tests  usually 
are  of  the  character  of  a  medical  examination.  Mental  tests 
include  psychological  tests,  trade  tests,  and  educational  tests. 

Psychological  Tests  are  tests  in  the  actual  performance  of 
exercises  each  of  which  requires  a  particular  degree  of  gen- 
eral intelligence,  or  of  a  phase  of  intelligence  (capacity  in 
one  of  the  functions — attention,  perception,  memory,  dis- 
crimination, response  to  dictates,  reasoning,  etc.)  for  its  execu- 
tion according  to  a  fixed  standard.  In  the  application  of  such 
tests  it  should  be  fully  appreciated  that  a  single  test  is  subject 
to  many  accidental  influences  which  restrict  its  revelations  to 
momentary  ability  only  and  it  therefore  is  no  proof  of  ulti- 
mate capacity,  which  is  the  thing  actually  to  be  determined. 
The  ultimate  capacity  of  an  individual  is  revealed  by  the  kind 
of  acts  which  he  is  capable  of  performing  after  repeated  ap- 
plication and  continuous  practice  and  individual  differences 
shown  by  a  first  or  preliminary  test  will  not  be  the  same  as 
at  the  end  of  periods  of  practice  during  which  individuals  have 
acquired  the  highest  degree  of  skill  attainable  by  them.  How- 
ever, in  competitive  examinations,  persons  who  show  ability 
at  the  moment  deserve  selection,  with  respect  to  items  in  ques- 
tion, over  those  who  do  not,  if  the  examination  takes  into  ac- 
count the  item,  "Maintenance  of  Established  Standards." 

Trade  Tests  are  exercises  assigned  for  the  purpose  of  de- 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  87 

regard  to  the  essential  points  listed  in  the  Per- 
formance Requirements  as  given  in  the  Analysis 
Record  of  the  position  to  be  filled. 

5.  Aside  from  the  notice  of  the  applicant,  enter 
in  his  Analysis  Record  a  judgment  mark  for  each 
of  the  primary  points  of  the  performance  require- 
ments transcribed  from  the  Analysis  Record  of 
the  position  to  that  of  the  prospective  incumbent. 
See  No.  3.     Consider  the  requirements,  knowing 


termining  the  skill  which  a  person  may  have  in  a  trade.  It 
has  been  found  that  persons  who  acquire  skill  in  mechanical 
trades  also  acquire  a  working  vocabulary  of  trade  terms  and 
therefore  testing  knowledge  of  trade  terms  in  addition  to 
knowledge  of  courses  of  action  applying  to  specific  circum- 
stances and  established  standards  by  means  of  a  rationally 
composed  questionnaire,  is  a  fair  indication  of  one's  status  in 
trade  performance.  Actual  exercises  in  trade  operations  are 
also  given  at  times  but  such  procedure  is  usually  impracticable. 
Accidental  influences  must  be  taken  into  account  in  trade  tests, 
as  with  other  tests. 

Educational  tests  are  the  exercises  commonly  assigned  in  the 
form  of  a  questionnaire  for  testing  knowledge  in  any  sub- 
ject. The  value  of  a  test  of  this  kind  depends  mainly  upon 
the  intelligence  used  in  selecting  questions  and  it  should  be 
appreciated  also  that  tests  of  this  kind  show  only  momentary 
ability,  as  is  true  of  psychological  tests  and  trade  tests,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  the  same  as  ultimate  ability. 

References  are  subject  to  prejudice  for  or  against  a  person. 
His  personal  references  will  likely  be  prejudiced  in  his  favor 
and  an  employer,  whose  service  he  is  leaving,  will  in  many 
instances  be  resentful,  especially  if  the  person  was  a  com- 
petent employee.  These  facts  should  be  fully  appreciated  in 
weighing  the  merits  of  letters  of  references  (See  "The  Selec- 
tion and  Placement  of  Employes,"  Federal  Board  for  Voca- 
tional Education,  Nov.,  1919). 


88         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

the  job  and  with  common  sense,  especially  with 
respect  to  individual  supervisors  concerned. 

These  marks  should  be  weighed  to  represent 
relative  values  and  should  when  added,  represent 
the  final  mark  or  general  grade,  for  which  the 
most  convenient  basis  is  probably  lOO. 

6.  Rate  the  intelligence  status  of  each  person 
by  the  class  number  for  the  status  of  perform- 
ance of  which  he  gives  evidence  of  being  capable 
and  enter  it  in  his  record. 

7.  With  inexperienced  persons  who  give  evi- 
dence of  non-technical  and  intelligence  qualifica- 
tions, prescribe  the  essential  course  of  training 
and  experience  for  the  performance  requirements. 

8.  Classify  the  Analysis  Records  thus  complet- 
ed for  various  subjects  in  any  desired  way  and  file 
as  a  permanent  record  of  examination  and  place- 
ment (See  Fig.  15). 

Conclusion:  We  thus  consider  aptitudes  for 
performance  individually  and  objectively  and  ar- 
rive at  a  decision  by  systematic  diagnosis,  avoid- 
ing "lump  sum"  estimates.  Also,  we  judge  adap- 
tations concretely,  since  we  have  specific  points  to 
meet  in  the  specifications,  and  we  take  standards 
for  comparisons. 


Individual  Placement  and  Training 


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Individual  Placement  and  Training  91 

Follow-Up  of  Progress  Record 

The  keeping  of  "Follow-Up"  records  of  the 
performance  of  members  in  an  organization  is 
a  specialized  function  in  centralizing  recognition 
of  the  state  of  efficiency  of  the  individual  members 
and  a  most  important  point  of  contact  between  the 
central  directorate  and  local  directorates  with  re- 
gard to  personnel  administration.  It  requires  sys- 
tematic periodic  registry  of  data  as  to  specific 
items  in  the  performance  of  each  incumbent  of  a 
position  and  organization  of  the  file  of  data  for 
instant  reference  and  reflection  of  the  status  of 
each  individual  at  the  expiration  of  stated  inter- 
vals of  time  ( 3  mo.,  6  mo.,  i  yr.,  etc. ) . 

Data  as,  far  as  possible,  should  be  with  regard 
to  objective  points  (clearly  observable)  and  in- 
clude observations  of  more  than  one  judge,  when 
possible,  in  order  to  be  free  from  personal  prejud- 
ice and  arbitrary  standards.  When  comparison 
of  data  regarding  the  efficiency  of  any  incumbent 
at  different  times  indicates  a  noteworthy  change 
in  efficiency,  special  explanation  should  be  obtain- 
ed and  entered  in  the  record. 

The  procedure  of  keeping  "Follow-Up"  rec- 
ords is  simple  and  practical  if  a  card  is  kept  for 
each  person,  bearing  a  form  for  record  such  as 


92         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

shown  in  Figure  i6,  including  a  list  of  items  from 
the  Analysis  Record  of  the  performance  of  the 
position  occupied  by  the  incumbent  and  note  as  to 
method  of  grading,  and  these  cards  are  passed  to 
and  returned  by  the  judges  concerned,  with  regu- 
larity. If  conducted  seriously,  this  procedure  will 
check  up  inconsistencies  in  judgments  and  place- 
ment and,  in  the  long  run,  will  establish  a  reliable 
basis  for  adjustments. 

This  procedure  is  one  of  the  functions  most 
essential  to  fair  personnel  administration.  It  is 
the  principal  means  by  which  a  policy  for  uniform- 
ity and  fairness  in  dealing  can  be  applied  to  indi- 
vidual workers  because  it  is  the  only  means  for 
systematically  presenting  the  merits  of  individual 
members  of  an  organization  to  its  executives.  Its 
absence  and  the  consequent  existence  of  much 
decentralized  despotism  or  personal  favoritism 
have  been  responsible  for  much  of  the  distrust 
and  lack  of  faith  in  workers  for  management  in 
industry.  Instances  of  injustice  have  been  com- 
mon enough  to  be  within  the  experience  of  every- 
one who  has  worked  long  in  the  ranks  and  are 
frequently  so  common  as  to  be  accepted  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course. 

Failure  to  carry  on  the  procedure  with  regular- 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  93 

ity  and  competent  supervision,  or  with  analy- 
sis of  the  performance  concerned,  is  equivalent  to 
or  worse  than  no  attempt  to  do  it  at  all.  For 
example,  the  following  cases  are  cited : — 

( 1 )  In  a  navy  yard,  a  locomotive  engineer  of 
wide  experience  and  long  service  before  and  dur- 
ing the  War  was  suddenly  laid  off  and  given  a 
notification  slip  signed  by  an  officer's  rubber  stamp 
and  bearing  the  ratings — Efficiency  65  per  cent, 
and  Conduct  60  per  cent.  He  wrote  his  Con- 
gressman explaining  the  circumstances  and  was 
personally  called  upon  afterwards  by  a  higher 
officer  and  invited  to  return  to  work,  whereupon 
his  ratings  were  raised  by  the  Commandant  to 
90  per  cent,  and  100  per  cent. 

There  were  evidently  in  this  case,  no  tangible 
data  for  placing  the  original  ratings  at  6^  per 
cent,  and  60  per  cent,  respectfully  and,  if  the  man 
was  important  enough  to  be  restored  in  the  man- 
ner stated,  the  reason  given  for  lay  off,  "no 
work,"  was  a  ruse. 

(2)  In  a  large  city  school  system,  a  high  school 
instructor  of  ten  years  standing  "took  a  chance" 
in  191 8  and  resigned  to  take  up  government  war 
work.  He  had  letters  in  his  possession  given  by 
various  supervisors  at  different  times  during  and 


94         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

at  the  end  of  his  period  of  service  which  gave 
unquaHfied  approval  of  his  efficiency  and  compet- 
ancy.  He  applied  for  reappointment  during  the 
following  year  and  was  informed  that  his  Princi- 
pal (one  of  the  supervisors  who  had  formerly 
given  unqualified  commendation)  had  stated,  in 
an  answer  to  the  Superintendent's  inquiry,  that  his 
work  toward  the  last  was  not  as  good  as  it  had 
been  formerly  because  of  outside  interests.  This 
disagreed  vitally  with  a  written  statement  which  he 
had  received  at  the  termination  of  his  service 
from  his  Department  Head  but  no  data  were  giv- 
en to  substantiate  the  discrepancy  and  none  were 
required  by  the  Superintendent  because  it  seemed 
most  expedient  for  him  to  stand  by  the  Princi- 
pal. The  facts  were  that  during  his  last  year  the 
instructor  did  much  less  outside  work  than  in 
previous  years  and  the  Principal  could  not  have 
produced  data  to  show  that  his  work  had  de- 
teriorated because  he  had  not  been  in  touch  with 
it.  He  did  not  knew  even  the  subjects  the 
instructor  was  teaching,  to  say  nothing  of  his 
methods  in  teaching.  The  Principal  was  Ger- 
man and  had  been  a  German  sympathizer  during 
the  War.  He  was  resentful  because  of  the  resig- 
nation, but  nevertheless  his  sweeping  judgment 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  95 

was  all  that  would  be  considered  by  the  Superin- 
tendent. The  Superintendent  explained  that  it 
would  be  a  lot  of  "unnecessary  work"  to  keep  up 
records  of  data  taken  periodically,  although  the 
teachers  had  always  been  lead  to  believe  that 
such  records  were  kept. 

Practice  in  rating  men  is  thus  quite  different,  in 
many  organizations,  from  that  of  rating  machines 
and  equipment.  If  a  foreman  were  to  discard 
a  machine  costing  fifty  dollars,  some  tangible  rea- 
son would  have  to  be  stated  which  could  be  veri- 
fied and  until  rational  methods  under  competent 
administrators  can  be  used  in  connection  with 
workers,  distrust  of  management  may  be  expected 
with  its  consequent  effect  upon  production,  and 
rational  methods  will  need  to  be  in  force  long 
enough  for  workers  to  experience  their  effects  be- 
fore their  influence  can  produce  results  which,  if 
effective  even  in  a  small  degree,  would  justify  the 
meagre  expense  of  their  operation. 

THE  INSTINCT  OF  PROGRESS 

Follow-up  records  correctly  kept  and  used  are 
of  great  interest  to  workers  in  an  organization 
and  an  incentive  to  efficient  continuous  service  be- 
cause instinct  to  make  progress  is  vital  and  can 
be  satisfied  only  under  conditions  of  fair  dealing 


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98         Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

which  the  correct  keeping  of  follow-up  records 
promotes.  This  instinct  of  progress  is  a  most 
important  characteristic  of  all  living  beings  be- 
cause the  maintenance  and  perpetuation  of  life 
processes  demands  specific  relations  with  an  ever 
changing  environment.  To  meet  these  demands 
we  are  sensitive  to  our  surroundings  and  respon- 
sive in  the  performance  of  our  correlated  acts  and 
acquire  attitudes  with  respect  to  persons  and 
things  about  us. 

Mental  comfort  or  happiness  is  enjoyed  when 
we  appreciate  that  the  demands  of  our  environ- 
mental relations  are  met.  It  instinctively  depends 
upon  the  consciousness  of  success  or  accomplish- 
ment from  hour  to  hour  and  day  to  day  in  what- 
ever we  may  become  interested.  It  is  such  a  vital 
instinct  to  desire  this  progress  that  we  suffer  men- 
tal discomfort  or  the  feeling  of  unhappiness  if  it 
is  not  satisfied. 

To  be  conscious  therefore  of  making  definite 
progress  is  the  root  of  joy  in  work  and  joy  in  fife. 
It  is  an  instinct  not  peculiar  to  ourselves  but  to  all 
living  beings  in  consequence  of  a  universal  law 
of  progress  shown  everywhere  in  nature  by  con- 
tinuous change  and  development. 

We  are  therefore  in  harmony  with  our  envir- 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  99 

onment  when  we  can  find  in  it  courses  of  action 
which  are  creative  and  lead  to  progressive  accom- 
plishment as  time  goes  on  and,  if  we  fail  to  find 
such  courses  of  action,  we  are  out  of  harmony  and 
are  unprofitably  and  unhappily  situated,  Long- 
fellow expresses  the  idea  in  the  following  lines — 

i 
"Not  enjoyment  and  not  sorrow  is  our  destined  end  or 

way, 
But  to   act   that   each   tomorrow  find   us   farther  than 

today." 

For  mental  comfort  and  happiness  then  we 
must  consider  occupational  performance  and  work 
along  lines  which  are  interesting,  moving,  doing, 
and  giving  development  and  inspiration  through 
new  accomplishments,  according  to  our  aptitudes, 
as  time  goes  on.  The  performance,  unless  we  are 
economically  independent,  must  yield  commercial 
returns  as  part  of  its  accomplishment,  at  least  to 
the  extent  required  by  our  living  relations  to  en- 
vironment, and  must  therefore  be  of  a  kind  which 
is  in  certain  demand. 

Appreciation  of  progress  is  a  strong  incentive 
to  effort  and  it  may  be  very  much  facilitated  by 
systematically  noting  and   reviewing  occurrences 


lOO       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

and  advances.  Therefore,  it  is  highly  important 
to  display  graphically  all  available  records  of 
progress  to  individuals  concerned,  and  to  publish 
all  intelligible  information  concerning  the  produc- 
tion which  they  control.  The  keeping  of  a  jour- 
nal and  graphic  summaries  which  can  be  project- 
ed perpetually  (see  Fig.  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22) 
is  of  value  to  individuals  in  this  respect. 

Financial  Provisions 

Progress  on  the  whole  gives  satisfaction  and 
peace  of  mind  only  when  it  is  ample  to  provide  for 
future  wants.  A  portion  of  our  regular  returns, 
therefore,  must  be  invested  for  accumulation  of 
capital  to  meet  future  demands  when  returns  from 
service  cannot  be  maintained,  or  cannot  meet  an 
excessive  demand. 

There  is  no  maximum  limit  to  the  amount  which 
any  one  should  so  invest,  provided  that  it  does  not 
unduly  restrict  provisions  for  present  needs,  but 
there  is  a  minimum  limit  or  objective  whose  at- 
tainment is  essential  to  consciousness  of  progress 
in  the  full  or  complete  sense  and  therefore  essen- 
tial to  the  mental  states  of  confidence,  comfort, 
and  happiness. 

The  essential  provisions  beyond  present  needs 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  lOi 

which  progress  calls  for,  which  must  fix  our  min- 
imum objectives  are : — 

1.  Insurance  of  acquired  property  and  provis- 
ions for  dependents  in  times  of  disability. 

2.  Educational  and  other  developmental  re- 
quirements of  self  and  family. 

3.  Retirement  endowment. 

These  provisions  are  therefore  of  vital  concern 
to  the  individual  and  must  be  considered,  in  ad- 
justing compensation,  as  part  of  his  living  de- 
mands. Beneficial,  educational,  and  thrift  plans 
should  be  promoted  in  these  relations  by  corpora- 
tions and  participated  in  by  individual  members. 

Training  and  Development 

Systematic  training  is  essential  in  any  situation 
to  provide  discipline  for  the  performance  which  is 
required  and  may  be  followed  according  to  one's 
own  plans  or  under  counsel  and  guidance  of  oth- 
ers, according  to  the  nature  of  the  performance  re- 
quirements of  the  work  in  view  and  one's  endow- 
ments and  previous  experience.  This  course  of 
training  is  not  essentially  apart  from  or  discontin- 
uous with  the  occupation  as  a  whole,  but  continuous 
with  it  throughout  life  as  one  and  the  same  course 
of  procedure,  the  future  being  built  upon  the  exper- 
ience of  the  past,  planned  and  developed  as  ingen- 


I02       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

uity  and  environmental  circumstances  offer  possi- 
bilities. We  cannot  see  clearly  ahead  but  we  can 
lay  out  a  general  course  to  follow  which  leads  to 
opportunities  and  establish  an  objective;  then 
when  this  is  attained,  we  can  establish  another, 
and  so  on,  as  ways  open  up.  We  can  control  the 
application  and  development  of  our  endowed  fac- 
ulties but  we  have  little  or  no  control  over  circum- 
stances apart  from  us  and  therefore  must  seek 
environmental  conditions  which  are  opportune  to 
our  adaptations  for  performance.  Intelligence 
makes  the  discovery  of  opportunities  possible  and 
our  ingenuity  is  constantly  being  taxed  to  find  the 
ways  and  means  for  accomplishment  but  oppor- 
tune conditions  must  exist  or  nothing  can  be  ac- 
complished by  any  kind  of  performance. 

We  attain  development  by  thought  control.  By 
this,  states  of  mind  and  mental  traits  may  be 
greatly  modified — "timidity  to  strength,  coward- 
ice to  bravery,  stress  and  anguish  to  peace  and 
poise,"  Frank  Crane.  Personal  characteristics 
are  derived  paternally  and  are  either  developed 
or  inhibited  under  environmental  influences  as  we 
advance  in  life,  that  is,  we  have  an  organization 
with  inherent  tendencies  to  expression  but  adapt- 
able to  extrinsic  influences.     Our  acts  are  greatly 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  103 

restricted  In  some  respects  and  enforced  in  others 
as  we  knock  about  in  our  environment  and  "mud- 
dle through,"  making  mistakes  and  perfecting  our 
steps  along  a  course  of  continuous  change. 

We  can  apply  our  intelligence  to  the  ordering 
of  this  process  of  perfecting  our  steps,  much  to 
our  advantage,  by  observing  essential  conditions 
to  be  met  and  consciously  practicing  the  acts  called 
for  until  they  become  fixed  habits  in  part  with  our 
reflex  nature.     This  Is  self-training. 

In  this  we  may  single  out  essential  points  for 
mental  discipline  and  practice  upon  these  as  essen- 
tial In  self  training,  together  with  those  for  exper- 
ience of  a  technical  character.  In  these  applica- 
tions certain  facts  and  principles  have  been  clearly 
recognized  as  follows: — (see  "Psychology  in 
Daily  Life,"  Seashore,  Appletons'). 

IMPRESSIONS 

1.  Impressions  are  retained  when  we  attend  to 
their  objects  with  confidence  and  trust  in  mem- 
ory, especially  of  the  first  impression. 

2.  Visual  and  serviceable  ideas  require  clear 
observation  of  essential  elements  and  their  Integ- 
ration in  large  units — Analyses  and  Syntheses. 

3.  Mental  effort  can  be  sustained  only  during 


I04       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

comparatively  short  periods  (two  hours  or  there 
about),  therefor  economy  requires  that  concen- 
tration of  attention  should  follow  periods  of  re- 
laxation. 

RECOLLECTION 

1.  Recognition  of  relationships  and  associa- 
tions is  essential  to  associated  memory  and  the 
flow  of  ideas. 

2.  Mental  impressions  are  utilized  by  being 
recalled  and  persistent  effort  to  recall  and  its  repe- 
tition develop  its  efficiency. 

3.  Ideas  are  serviceable  only  when  their  recall 
is  exact  and  the  impression  kept  clear  of  unrelat- 
ed elements. 

4.  Cultivation  of  realistic  imagery  facilitates 
recognition. 

5.  Expression  of  recognition  develops  its  effi- 
ciency. 

SUMMARY  OF  ESSENTIALS  IN  TRAINING 

From  the  forgoing  statements  of  principle  we 
may  conclude  that  the  elements  of  training  may 
be  summarized  in  the  following  phases : — 

I.  Development  of  habits,  of  keen  sense  per- 
ception and  discrimination — capacity  for  obser- 
vation and  inductive  thinking. 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  105 

2.  Development  of  conceptions  of  systems  of 
knowledge — capacity  for  deductive  thinking. 

3.  Practice  in  essentials  until  action  becomes 
easy  and  automatic. 

Habits  of  Keen  Sense  Perception  and  Discrimination 

Inquiry  and  concentration  of  attention  upon 
the  thing  at  hand  at  the  moment  are  essential  to 
keen  perception. 

Attention  to  comparison  of  impressions  is  es- 
sential to  discrimination,  intelligent  action,  and 
constructive  imagination. 

Intelligence,  and  rational  action  are  developed 
in  proportion  to  habits  or  perception,  discrimin- 
ation, and  vivid  recollection. 

Training  as  to  these  habits  is  the  most  impor- 
tant phase  in  education  because  vital  information 
and  performance  will  be  achieved  in  consequence. 

"The  key  to  the  training  of  the  senses  is  the 
habit  of  directing  attention  in  efficient,  economic, 
and  restful  waves,"  Seashore.  The  habit  of  trust- 
ing the  senses,  especially  the  first  impression,  is 
most  important  in  training.  Lack  of  concentra- 
tion gives  dull  sense  perception  and  concentration 
of  attention  is  inhibited  by  aimless  ineffective 
strain.     Growth  occurs  only  by  self-expression  in 


lo6       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

the  use  of  one's  own  resources  and  any  system  to 
promote  this  must  allow  individual  freedom  for 
initiative.  Lock  step  systems,  which  are  common, 
restrict  rather  than  promote  this  freedom  for  self- 
expression.  The  individual  should  be  guided  in 
work  which  he  is  able  to  undertake  according  to 
his  resources.  He  should  be  advanced  as  he  is 
prepared  to  undertake  new  achievements,  and 
should  suffer  the  natural  consequences  of  his  own 
mistakes.  Dealing  and  association  with  others 
should  be  an  important  part  of  his  activities  be- 
cause of  the  importance  in  environment  of  ele- 
ments involving  other  persons  and  the  necessity  of 
personal  propaganda  for  his  own  progress. 

Conceptions  of  Systems  of  Knowledge 

Most  knowledge  cannot  be  acquired  by  one's 
own  investigations.  Life  is  too  short  for  the  in- 
dividual to  rediscover  known  facts.  We  must  be- 
gin where  our  ancestors  left  off,  making  use  of  the 
heritage  which  we  have  received  from  them.  We 
must  therefore  acquire  a  fund  of  the  knowledge 
of  our  times  as  a  working  basis  and  this  must  be 
organized  in  order  to  be  of  value  in  deductive 
thinking.  In  acquiring  this  knowledge  the  habits 
of  keen  sense  perception  and  discrimination  should 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  107 

be  employed  in  order  that  the  different  phases  in 
training  may  be  taken  up  together. 

Practice  in  Essentials 

Essential  acts  in  performance  must  be  repeated 
until  they  become  reflexive  in  order  to  acquire  fix- 
ed graceful  habits  and  economic  action  in  any 
field  of  endeavor  and  in  general  association. 

JUDGMENT    AND    DIRECTION    OF    THE    SELF    AND 
OTHERS   IN  VOCATIONAL  RELATIONS  BROADLY 

Personal  judgment  and  direction  broadly,  re- 
quires placement  of  the  individual  in  an  occupa- 
tion upon  the  same  principles  of  selection  that 
apply  to  the  placement  of  workers  in  positions  in 
a  corporate  organization,  namely,  examining  the 
individual  for  adaptations  to  the  items  of  required 
performance,  but  the  examination  of  the  individ- 
ual should  be  made  directly  from  the  "Check 
List"  of  the  Key,  preceding,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
comprehensive  characterization  of  performance  to 
which  the  individual  may  be  adapted  (see  Form 
12).  This  should  then  be  graded  as  to  intelli- 
gence status  by  means  of  the  "Outline  of  Intelli- 
gent Performance"  of  the  Key  and  possible  occu- 
pations  should  be   considered   according  to   the 


io8       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

same    procedure.      By    comparisons,    a    rational 
choice  may  then  be  made. 

No  one  else  knows  what  a  person  does  and 
likes  better  than  himself  so  that  he,  if  he  will  be 
strictly  honest  with  himself,  can  be  his  own  best 
judge  and  he  must  exercise  this  function  wisely  if 
he  is  to  be  his  own  manager  and  direct  his  activi- 
ties successfully.  There  is  no  specific  piece  of 
work  for  which  a  person  is  predestined  absolute- 
ly. Adaptations  are  relative  and,  within  a  general 
field,  an  individual  may  apply  himself  to  any  one 
of  a  variety  of  activities  equally  well  because  many 
items  in  the  performance  of  an  occupation  are  not 
technical,  though  essential  to  technique.  Occupa- 
tional performance  will  be  much  more  efficient 
however,  when  selected  in  the  field  of  ones  natural 
interests  than  when  selected  in  another  field,  be- 
cause impressions  within  this  field  are  easily 
grasped,  retained,  and  utilized,  as  much  of  the 
performance  will  consist  in  spontaneous  expres- 
sion for  the  pleasure  of  expression  alone,  that  is, 
work  and  play  in  such  a  field  are  strongly  corre- 
lated and  free  self  expression  is  the  strongest  of 
influences  toward  mental  development.  What  we 
need  to  remember  under  such  conditions  are  the 
things  in  which  we  are  naturally  interested  and  to 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  109 

which  we  give  attention  spontaneously.  There- 
fore, discovery  of  one's  likes  and  dislikes  reveals 
much  as  to  his  personal  adaptations  for  different 
types  of  occupational  performance  and  should  be 
included  in  systematic  procedure  for  discovery  of 
his  aptitudes. 

Judgment  of  others  in  their  occupations  may  be 
made  fairly  by  using  the  "Key  to  Analysis  and 
Classification  of  Performance  in  Vocational  Re- 
lations" if  we  have  been  able  to  observe  the  per- 
sons in  action  or  collect  reliable  data  of  their  ac- 
tion, and  judgment  as  to  strength  or  weakness  in 
particular  features  of  their  performance  may  be 
of  great  value  in  dealing,  or  in  rating  or  directing 
their  activities. 

Personal  Propaganda 

The  environment  in  which  we  live  is  made  up 
very  extensively  of  elements  involving  other  per- 
sons which  require  dealing  and  association.  In 
these  respects,  not  only  ability  to  perform  service 
is  necessary  but  propaganda  for  patronage  as 
well,  executed  either  by  ourselves  or  by  others, 
consciously  or  unconsciously.  This  is  true  be- 
cause patronage  can  be  extended  only  according 
to  the  knowledge  and  belief  which  others  acquire 


no       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

about  us,  justly  or  unjustly.  We  must  therefore 
take  care  that  our  performance  is  pleasing  and 
strikingly  suggestive  of  personal  power  and  abil- 
ity. There  is  a  medium  and  admirable  course 
which  we  can  easily  choose  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  indifference  and  false  suggestion,  either 
of  which  may  fail  to  inspire  the  respect  and  confi- 
dence of  others  because  the  one  has  never  aroused 
their  interest  and  the  other  has  fooled  them  too 
often.  In  these  relations  the  following  facts  are 
clearly  established: — 

( 1 )  We  are  patronized  according  as  we  are 
able  to  live  up  to  and  build  upon  the  first  impres- 
sion which  we  make  upon  other  people. 

(2)  The  impressions  which  we  make  upon  oth- 
er people  are  chiefly  by  unconscious  suggestion 
through  all  of  our  channels  of  expression. 

Suggestion  may  be  consciously  directed  and 
therefore  included  in  training  with  appreciation 
that — 

"Postive  suggestion  builds  up  and 

Negative  suggestion  breaks  down ; 

Indifference,  hesitation,  and  argument  act  nega- 
tively."— Allen,  "Personal  Efficiency  and 
Selling,"  LaSalle  Extension  University. 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  ill 

Rational  Code  of  Progress 

No  absolute  rules  can  be  given  for  progress.  In 
one  instance  a  person  progresses  while  staying  in 
one  organization  all  his  life.  In  another  instance 
progress  is  made  by  changing  to  a  new  environ- 
ment and  doing  it  repeatedly.  The  conditions 
which  exist  in  any  case  are  individual  and  cannot 
be  generalized.  A  certain  course  of  action  in  one 
instance  will  give  desired  results  but  in  another 
instance  conditions  render  it  entirely  fruitless. 
Therefore,  the  rules  which  follow  can  be  regarded 
only  as  guides  to  the  formation  of  habits  desir- 
able according  to  general  principles. 

Rules 

( 1 )  Study  the  nature  of  performance  and  or- 
ganization in  performance  in  vocational  relations. 

(2)  Judge  yourself,  according  to  the  outHnes 
suggested  in  the  "Key  to  Analysis  and  Classifica- 
tion of  Performance  in  Vocational  Relations." 

Select  an  occupation  accordingly  and  master  it 
broadly  and  specifically. 

List  items  in  performance  to  be  developed  by 
training,  as  you  progress,  and  keep  a  summary  of 
items  of  analysis  and  of  training  for  reference,  on 
a  blank,  as  an  "Analysis  Record"   (see  Fig.  17). 


112       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

"Being  expert  In  one  thing  carries  with  it  power 
over  other  situations,  and  gives  a  station,  social 
ranking,  and  confidence  in  self,  spreading  to  other 
activities,  so  that  one  may  live  at  the  level  of  his 
highest  achievement." — Seashore. 

(3)  Follow  up  your  progress  and  anticipate 
the  future  referring  to  the  Analysis  Record: 

A.  Credit  yourself  fairly  with  success  and  re- 
call the  steps  in  your  achievements — 

Keep  a  Journal  and  Graphic  Records  of  events 
to  date ;  tabulate  experience  and,  advances  by 
years  (see  Figures  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22). 

B.  Look  forward  to  the  events  which  you  can 
expect — provide  for  financial  contingencies  by  in- 
surance and  accumulation  of  invested  capital. 

Keep  a  file  of  notes  and  memoranda  for  work 
ahead,  noting  objectives  also  in  the  Graphic  Rec- 
ords for  comparison  with  actual  accomplishments 
as  recorded. 

C.  Practice  daily  in  the  items  of  training  and 
play  in  the  activities  in  which  you  can  exercise  ex- 
pression spontaneously. 

(4)  Standardize,  schedule,  and  dispatch  your 
items,  concentrating  upon  the  work  at  hand  and 
doing  everything  as  well  as  it  can  be  done,  making 
as  good  a  personal  impression  as  possible  upon 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  113 

all  others,  and  let  events  take  their  course  until  it 
is  certain  that  no  further  progress  can  be  made. 

(5)  If  then  progress  has  not  been  satisfactory 
from  a  reasonable  viewpoint,  seek  a  location  in  a 
different  environment,  but  'do  not  "detour"  until 
the  road  is  blocked  and  you  have  covered  the  last 
fifty  feet  ahead.  When  you  do  come  to  a  block  do 
not  be  afraid  to  turn  for  there  is  always  a  way 
around.'  Do  not  turn  back,  you  cannot;  the  past 
cannot  be  recalled.  Eagerness  to  work,  applied 
with  ingenuity,  will  find  opportunity  with  compen- 
sation in  the  long  run. 

(6)  Take  your  chances  fairly;  some  things 
will  work  out  in  your  favor  if  you  persistently  try 
out  possibilities. 

(7)  Have  the  moral  courage  and  self-reliance 
to  make  decisions  and  stand  your  ground  fighting 
your  own  battles. 

Your  position  is  stronger  if  you  are  decisive, 
although  not  always  correct,  than  if  you  are  inde- 
cisive and  uncertain.  But  when  you  make  a  mis- 
take have  the  moral  courage  to  acknowledge  it 
honorably  and  honestly. 

(8) Work  primarily  for  what  you  can  do  and 
you  will  have  the  potentialities  for  compensation. 
Present  these  potentialities  strikingly  and  sustain 


114       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

the  interest  of  others  in  them  through  suggestion, 
and  compensation  will  follow. 
•  (9)  Bear  in  mind  that  efficiency  in  any  organ- 
ization would  be  very  low  if  all  of  the  incumbents 
of  positions  should  follow  beaten  paths  laid  out 
for  them.  It  is  frequently  on  account  of  the  initia- 
tive of  individuals  in  minor  positions,  often 
against  the  opposition  of  their  superiors  and  un- 
der hazard  to  themselves,  that  advances  are  made 
in  the  direction  of  better  organization  and  in- 
creased efficiency. 

(10)  Bear  in  mind  also  that  "In  a  given  germ 
cell  there  is  the  potency  of  any  kind  of  organism 
that  could  develop  from  that  cell  under  any  kind 
of  conditions.  The  potencies  of  development  are 
much  greater  than  the  actualities.  Anything 
which  could  possiby  appear  in  the  course  of  devel- 
opment is  potential  in  heredity  and  under  given 
conditions  of  environment  is  predetermined.  Since 
the  environment  cannot  be  all  things  at  once,  many 
hereditary  possibilities  must  remain  latent  or  un- 
developed. Consequently  the  results  of  develop- 
ment are  not  determined  by  hereditary  alone,  but 
also  by  extrinsic  causes.  Things  cannot  be  pre- 
determined in  hereditary  which  are  not  also  pre- 
determined in  environment.     Of  all  animals,  man 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  115 

has  the  most  extensive  and  the  most  varied  envir- 
onment and  its  effect  upon  his  personality  is  corre- 
spondingly great."  E.  G.  Conklin,  "Hereditary 
and  Environment." 

Therefore,  in  training  for  the  performance  in 
vievv^,  you  must  develop  qualities  not  called  forth 
by  past  experiences  and  your  capabilities  are  al- 
ways greater  than  the  past  has  revealed.  This 
applies  all  through  life  and  you  should  conse- 
quently seek  and  develop  relevant  performance. 

Form  12 

Figure  17  ANALYSIS  RECORD 

(Specimen  Record) 

Performance  Revealed  in  Vocational  Relations  Broadly. 

(Items  checked  once,  twice,  or  three  times  according  to 
aptitudes). 
Physical — 

V W  General  application  with  good  health ;  applica- 
tion with  normal  endurance  and  the  strength  of  a  slight 
physique. 
Mental — 
(Perception) 
Accurate  observation — 

\/\/  (a)  Attention  to  objects  of  impression  with  con- 
centration and  with  trust  in  and  with  intention  to  recall 
their  impression. 

VV  (b)  Quick  perception  of  essential  elements  and 
their  integration. 


Ii6       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

(Memory) 

\/\/  Recognition  of  associations,  real  or  accidental, 
essential  to  the  memory  of  ideas. 
(Discrimination) 

\/\/\/  Judgment  of  qualities  by  comparison  with  es- 
tablished standards. 

\/\/\/  Analyses  and  classifications  by  established  pro- 
cedure. 
(Response  to  Dictates) 

\/\/  Initiation  of  action. 
\/\/\/  Maintenance  of  established  standards. 

"v/a/  Resourceful  application  of  courses  of  action. 
(Planning) 

\/\/\/  Constructive  imagination  and  development  of 
new  courses  of  action. 

\/\/\/  Establishing  standards. 
(Adherence  to  Truth  and  Trust) 
WV  Tenaceous  adherence  to  fact. 
\/\/\/  Custody  of  property  and  information  in  trust. 
(Dealing,   Association,    and   Expression   as   to   Kinds  of 
Thought  and  Action) 
\/\/V  Dealing  with  fairness. 

\/\/  Promptly  making  and  holding  to  decisions  with 
self  reliance  and  courage. 

"\/\/  Spontaneous  expression  of  self  reliance  and  abil- 
ity to  carry  out  a  project,  sufficient  to  inspire  the  respect, 
trust,  and  confidence  of  others  and  their  subordination  to 
leadership. 

W  Delegating  performance. 
\/\/\/  Organizing  division  of  labor. 

■\/\/  Gauging  correctly  the  ability  of  others. 
VVV  Gauging  correctly  the  effect  of  instruction  of 
others  and  adapting  it. 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  117 

"n/V  Invention — combination  of  structural  elements 
for  advantage  in  performance. 

\/\/\/  Accepting  circumstances  as  a  matter  of  course 
without  generalizing  as  conspiringly  antagonistic. 
\/\/  Judging  human  temperment. 

VVV  Association  with  poise  and  good  address. 

VV  V    Tactful  association  with  others. 

y/y/y/  Spontaneous  expression  of  simple  tasts  and 
cleanliness. 

W  Spontaneous    expression    of    desire    to    serve 
rather  than  to  be  served. 

's/y/yy  Spontaneous  expression  of  humility. 

\/\/  Spontaneous    expression    of    liking    for    intel- 
ectual  pleasures. 

WV  Spontaneous  expression  in  thought  in  natural 
sciences  generally — biological  and  social  sciences  par- 
ticularly— as  to  application;  in  art — photography  par- 
ticularly; and  in  social  development — teaching  and  in- 
dustrial relations. 

VW  Spontaneous  expression  toward  the  following 
conditions  of  living  environment:  Home  life,  rural  life, 
and  nature,  family  responsibilities,  social  activities. 

Kinds  of  Occupations  Pertinent 

Medical — general  practice. 

Engineering — utilizing    natural   science   in   industrial 
production;  personnel  phases  in  industrial  engineering. 
Teaching — in  the  natural  science  field. 

Grades  of  Service  Attainable 

Departmental  and  Associate  Management — 
Executive  or  Sta£E  service. 
Items  to  be  Especially  Developed  by  Training 
Non-technical"^ 


Ii8       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 

Attention  to  objects  with  concentration  and  with  trust 
in  and  in  tention  to  recall  their  impression. 

Quick  perception  of  essential  elements  and  their  in- 
tegration— original  analyses  and  syntheses  and  organiza- 
tion of  ideas. 

Standardizing,  scheduling,  dispatching. 

Extemporaneous  expression  of  formulated  ideas. 

Inhibition  of  subjective  illusions,  fear,  etc.,  and  promptly 
making  and  holding  to  decisions  with  self  reliance  and 
courage. 

Intuitive  action  to  command  and  sustain  favorable  at- 
tention. 
Technical — 


Individual  Placement  and  Training 


119 


SUMMARY  ANALYSIS 
ANNUAL    E.XPENDITUH^ES. 


Ttit 


CurrrnrLtFinii 


TnjiifAtice 


iducMtiondt 


nTEjLpmhse 


Ewifowm-{  fsHiasat. 


'i PwiHiU 


9tlt*r 


iiis 


Otht 


f"t't»^ 


OtH^r 


i3 


1.49360 


5940 

J3  40 


»o  00 
tooo 


ISOC 

3200 


«.o»oo 
20400 


2J  0000 
14^0000 


FIGURE  18 


I20      Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 


2.S00 

»M 

Uoo 

2500 

Uoa 

iiOO 

2X00 

1100 

^„„x''^ 

{000 
1100 

18  00 

noo 

lb  00 
IS  00 
f4oo 
J300 

^^^                                '             FINANCIAL  RPQUIREMEMTS. 

Current  Cfpense.  

Jjiwrance- Property^ 

Ufc,  Di9ibiHty. 

CducitierifXc. 

Ejlde¥ftn^nt, — ~ 

Uoo 

noo 

iooo 

300 

80O 

700 

«00 

^0 

400 
300 
100 

-p--^'""" 

100 

'W  •»/  !U  '«  M  'W  it  »7  i»  kj  V)  31  ia  ij i4  3^ 'st  37  !>»  3J  48__.  _ 

FIGURE  19 


Individual  Placement  and  Training 


121 


GRAPHIC  RECORD-  OCCUPATION^., 


Jfafaif-  HlthSclw*! 


BuiitKSSCtlh 


mm 

JefftNtuiHfgCo. 
ir.BooHlietptr 


Letrers,  /?eporfs,n;in^, 

entries  from  one  boon  fo 
ajiother;  Balancing  AndAd- 
/ustifig&tfa;  Srateiwenra. 
^fterdl  Led^r-5  andfp/i- 
tfollihg  Actounts^dalmce 
Sheets,-  Supervision.  ^^ 


IJIO 

79  i; 

19  U 
)9  14^ 

13  n 

19  iS 
13  13 
19X0 
19  zr 
/9l» 
IJM 
I J 14 
19  V 
19  at 

mt 

19  90 
19  31 

1933 


5 


\. 


V 


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i 


FIGURE  20 

Minimum  Objective  based  upon  Minimum  Financial  Re- 
quirements of  Figure  19. 

Note — In  applying  for  a  position  a  Graphic  Record  of 
Occupations  carefully  made  in  detail,  if  added  to  a  letter,  will 
contribute  much  to  its  selling  qualities. 


122       Analysis  and  Classification  of  Performance 


COMPARISON 

OF 

ANNUAL  INCOME 

ANO 

EXPENSE, 


/9  AY  0609)0  )l  /a')3  W\S'\kn)&  )3\ox\  '22  '23  ;t4ijiU  J.7i8iL?  jo 


FIGURE  21 


Individual  Placement  and  Training  123 


FIGURE  22 


INDEX 


Action :  intensive ;    32 

rational    105 

Acts  :  correlation  of ; 32 

kinds;    28,  29 

new ;  32 

scale  of   31 

Adaptable,  through  correla- 
tion of  acts 32 

Adaptations    108,  109 

Advancement     of     incum- 
bents       83 

Analysis :    45 

and  classification  of  per- 
formance, key  to;   ..45-54 
annual  expenditures;  ...   119 
record.  .69-76,  89,  90,  115,  118 
Animal  forms,  scale  of.. 29,  30 

Art 48,  49.  52 

Assets  and  liabilities 123 

Association 20,  52,  106,  109 

Attention    26 

Authority,    controlling. .  .36,  37 
Autocratic  :    direction ;    . . .     37 

regime 38 

Bargaining   39-40,  79 

Capacity,  ultimate  86 

Centralization    36,  91 

Character  analysis 16,  17,  18 

Characterization:    18,   19 

of  performance  45,  46 

Check  list  of  items  in  per- 
formance         46 

Classification:    45,  56-60 

of  performance,  key  to ;  45-54 

summary  59 

Code   of  progress,   ration- 
al    111-115 

Commercial  returns  99 


Commodity,   labor   as  —  39.40 
Comparison  of  impressions  105 

Compensation:    114 

rating ; 79-82 

special    81 

Conference    ...38,41 

Constructive  imagination..     26 

Control :   production  ;    55 

of    production,    basis    in 

rating ; 79 

of  production  by  service, 

two  phases  79 

Correlation  of  acts    32 

Criticism  of  persons  in  oc- 
cupations       19 

Dealing  79,  106,  109 

Decentralization    36 

Decision 20,  21,  37,  52,  113 

Democratic  recognition 37 

Departmental  and  associate 

management    53 

Development  of  an  animal, 
thought  and  perform- 
ance in   30,  31 

Diagnosis     for     placement 

15,  85-88 

Directorates  36,  91 

Discrimination.  .26,  36,  104,  105 

Educational  tests    87 

Efficiency :...  12,  32,  34,  35.  4i, 
91,  104,  114,  108 

incentives ;    82 

in  production ;   80 

and  progress  rating 15 

Employment :  administra- 
tion, synopsis  of  func- 
tions ;   13 

methods    12 


125 


126 


Index 


Environmental  relations... 
98,  99,  106, 109,  III,  113,  114,  115 
Examiners,  judgments  of.     84 
Executive  :  ability  19,  20 

service   51,  52 

Expert  32,  112 

Expression   

27,  38,  102,  104,  108,  no 
Fair  dealing..  14,  15,  38,  92,  95 

Feelings   28,  32,  33 

Financial :  incentives ;  82 

provisions  ;  100,  loi 

requirements    120 

Follow-up:  of  progress;..    112 

of  progress  record  ;   . . . . 

83,  91,  96,  97,  100 

record  15 

Functions  34,  35,  38,  39 

General  management   53 

Graded     Classification     of 

positions    55-83 

Grading   occupational   per- 
formance         51 

Graphic :     record,    occupa- 
tions ;    121 

records   112,  1 19-123 

Growth  105-106 

Habits:  103,  107,  in 

of  keen  sense  perception 
and  discrimination.. 104-106 

Happiness    98 

Human  nature  33 

Imagination :    26 

constructive. ..  .21,  22,  26,  27 

Impressions    26,  103 

Incentives  :   to  production  ; 

15.  38  95 

special,  to  efficiency 82 

Income  and  expense,  com- 
parison      122 

Incumbents  prospective 84 


Individual   placement,    fol- 
low-up and  training. 84-123 
Industrial :  institution ;   . . .     39 

organization    38,  39 

Industry,   intensive.  ..13,  34,  35 

Initiative    106,  1 14 

Instruction   20,  52 

Intelligence :    

23,  24,  28,  51,  102,  105 

degree  or   status   of ;    . .     31 

features      of      perform- 
ance ;   46 

natural  scale  of    55 

Intelligent :  acts ;   28,  29 

performance ;    36 

performance  in  organiza- 
tion, outline  of  51-54 

Intensive  :  action  ;  32 

industry   13,  34,  35 

Interviews   86 

Invention   52 

Investigation  or  research..     52 

Journal   112 

Joy  in  work  and  life. . .  .98,  99 
Judgment :  and  direction  of 

the  self  and  others ;  107-109 

of  others 18,  20,  52,  109 

Key  to  analysis  and  classifi- 
cation  45-54 

Knowledge:  conceptions  of 
systems  of;    106 

fund  of 106 

Labor:  as  a  commodity;..     80 

division  of    34 

Leadership   19-21 

Learning  29 

Line  service    53-54 

Machines    35 

Management:    51-53 

departmental  and  associ- 
ate;         Si 


Index 


127 


general; 53 

general,    functions    of.. 20-21 

Mammals    29-30 

Mechanical  performance.. 25-36 

Minimum  rate   81 

Morale  79 

Objectives  100,  102,  121 

Observation  21,  22,  27 

Opportunities    102 

Organization:    20,  51,  52 

charting ;    41-44 

definition ;    34 

industrial ;    38-39 

in  performance  ;   34-44 

status    80,  81 

Patronage   109-1 10 

Pay  ranges   81 

Perception.  .26,  27,  36,  104,  105 
Performance;  characteriza- 
tion of ;    45 

correlation  of  acts  in;.. 28-33 
features  for  characteriza- 
tion ;    46 

intelligence  status  ;    ...  .51-55 

intelligent ;    36 

mechanical;    35-36 

nature  of ;    25-34 

non-technical ;    45-50 

of    occupations    or   posi- 
tions, application  to;...  12-15 
of     persons,     application 

to; 15-24 

production   status  of;.. 51-55 

standard;   32,  35,  53-54 

technical    and    non-tech- 
nical ;  56 

two  phases  ;  56 

two  phases  in  organiza- 
tion         36 

Personal :  adaptations  ; . . . .     56 

characteristics  ;    102,  103 

propoganda.., .  .106,  109,  no 


Personality 19,  22,  23 

Phases  of  application 11-12 

Phrenology    18 

Physiognomy  18 

Placement :    15 

diagnosis   for    85-88 

Play 108 

Position,  definition  and  in- 
tegration in  organiza- 
tion         41 

Positions  :    28,  39,  40 

graded       classification 

for;  55-83 

performance   in,   of   two 

phases ;   56 

standard       specifications 

for  55-83 

Potentialities 113-114 

Practice  in  essentials    107 

Procedure :  dependent  upon 

correlated  structure;..     35 

follow-up  ;    91,  92 

of  analysis,  specification 
and  graded  classifica- 
tion of  positions 56-78 

Producers    40 

Production:  control;   ...55,  80 
control  of,  basis  in  rat- 
ing;      79 

control    of,    by    service, 

two  phases  ; 79 

control,  rating ;    80 

status  of  performance..     51 
Progress  :  consciousness  of ; 

98-100 

instinct  of ;   95 

rational   code  of  ;. . . .  iii-iiS 
record,   follow-up  of;. 91-100 

records,  graphic,  etc 

100,  1 19-123 

Promotion   83 

Propaganda   52 


128 


Index 


Provisions    loo-ioi 

Psychological  tests  86 

Rate,  minimum    8i 

Rates,  scale  of  8i 

Rating :   compensation ; . . .  79-82 
compensation,     summary 

of  elements  ;  82 

production  control 80 

Rational :  acts  ;    29 

code  of  progress  111-115 

Reasoning    27 

Recall  .. .' 26,  36 

Recognition  104 

Recollection    104-105 

References  86-87 

Reflexes    28-32 

Rules,  progress    111-115 

Scale:  of  acts;    31 

of  intelligence ;    55 

of  rates   81 

Secrecy    82 

Selection  of  courses  of  ac- 
tion   28,  36,  129 

Self  :  expression  ; 105-106 

judgment  of..  18,  19,  108,  109 
Sense  preception  and   dis- 
crimination,   habits    of 

keen    105,  106 

Senses,  training 105 

Service :     executive,     staflf, 

line;  51,  52,  53 

grades;  53.  54,  58 

highly     skilled,      skilled, 
semi-skilled,  unskilled;     54 

kinds    59-60 

Specialization    34 

Staff  service  52 


Standard :   performance ; . . 

32,  53.  54 

practice ;  13.  22,  53-54 

specifications     for    posi- 
tions   55-83 

Standardization  34,  35,  "2 

Standardized  performance, 

mechanical 35 

Standards,    establishing....     21 
Statement  of  performance 

of   positions 57,  77,7^ 

Structure  and  function  in- 
separable       35 

Success  98 

Suggestion   no 

Supervision  53 

Systems  of  knowledge,  con- 
ceptions of    106 

Tests 85,86,  87 

Thinking,  inductive  and  de- 
ductive  27,  104,  105,  106 

Thought:  control;   102 

progressive  stages  of . . . . 

25,  26,  27 

Trade  tests   86,  87 

Training:    15,  19 

and  development ; 101-123 

essentials  in ;  104 

phases ;   104,  105 

self 103 

Traits    16 

Voucher,   judges'    97 

Workers :  40 

all  producers    82 

Working  conditions  merit- 
ing special  compensation    81 


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